User:Mr. Ibrahem/Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

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Mr. Ibrahem/Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Other namesAttention-deficit disorder, hyperkinetic disorder (ICD-10)
An image of children
People with ADHD may find it more difficult than others to focus on and complete tasks such as schoolwork.
SpecialtyPsychiatry, pediatrics
SymptomsDifficulty paying attention, excessive activity, difficulty controlling behavior[1][2]
Usual onsetBefore age 6–12[3]
Duration>6 months[3]
CausesBoth genetic and environmental factors[4][5]
Diagnostic methodBased on symptoms after other possible causes ruled out[1]
Differential diagnosisNormally active young child, conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, learning disorder, bipolar disorder, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder[6][7]
TreatmentCounseling, lifestyle changes, medications[1]
MedicationStimulants, atomoxetine, guanfacine, clonidine[8][9]
Frequency51.1 million (2015)[10]

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type.[11][12] It is characterized by difficulty paying attention, excessive activity, and acting without regards to consequences, which are otherwise not appropriate for a person's age.[1][2] Some individuals with ADHD also display difficulty regulating emotions or problems with executive function.[13][14][15][2] For a diagnosis, the symptoms should appear before a person is twelve years old, be present for more than six months, and cause problems in at least two settings (such as school, home, or recreational activities).[3][16] In children, problems paying attention may result in poor school performance.[1] Additionally there is an association with other mental disorders and substance misuse.[17] Although it causes impairment, particularly in modern society, many people with ADHD can have sustained attention for tasks they find interesting or rewarding (known as hyperfocus).[5][18]

Despite being the most commonly studied and diagnosed mental disorder in children and adolescents, the exact cause is unknown in the majority of cases.[4] Genetic factors are estimated to make up about 75% of the risk.[19] Nicotine exposure during pregnancy may be an environmental risk.[20] It does not appear to be related to the style of parenting or discipline.[21] It affects about 5–7% of children when diagnosed via the DSM-IV criteria[2][22] and 1–2% when diagnosed via the ICD-10 criteria.[23] As of 2015, it was estimated to affect about 51.1 million people globally.[10] Rates are similar between countries and depend mostly on how it is diagnosed.[24] ADHD is diagnosed approximately two times more often in boys than in girls,[2] although the disorder is often overlooked in girls because their symptoms differ from those of boys.[25][26][27] About 30–50% of people diagnosed in childhood continue to have symptoms into adulthood and between 2–5% of adults have the condition.[28][29][30] In adults inner restlessness rather than hyperactivity may occur.[31] They often develop coping skills which make up for some or all of their impairments.[32] The condition can be difficult to tell apart from other conditions, as well as to distinguish from high levels of activity that are still within the range of normal behaviors.[16]

ADHD management recommendations vary by country and usually involve some combination of counseling, lifestyle changes, and medications.[1] The British guideline only recommends medications as a first-line treatment in children who have severe symptoms and for medication to be considered in those with moderate symptoms who either refuse or fail to improve with counseling, though for adults medications are a first-line treatment.[33] Canadian and American guidelines recommend behavioral management first line in preschool-aged children while medications and behavioral therapy together is recommended after that.[34][35][36] Treatment with stimulants is effective for at least 14 months; however, their long-term effectiveness is unclear and there are potentially serious side effects.[37][38][39][40][41][42][43]

The medical literature has described symptoms similar to those of ADHD since the 18th century.[44] ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been considered controversial since the 1970s.[45] The controversies have involved clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Topics include ADHD's causes and the use of stimulant medications in its treatment.[46] Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder in children and adults, and the debate in the scientific community mainly centers on how it is diagnosed and treated.[47][48][49] The condition was officially known as attention deficit disorder (ADD) from 1980 to 1987, while before this it was known as hyperkinetic reaction of childhood.[50][51]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". National Institute of Mental Health. March 2016. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
  2. ^ a b c d e American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 59–65. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8.
  3. ^ a b c "Symptoms and Diagnosis". Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Division of Human Development, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 29 September 2014. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  4. ^ a b NIMH (2013). "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Easy-to-Read)". National Institute of Mental Health. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
  5. ^ a b Kooij JJ, Bijlenga D, Salerno L, Jaeschke R, Bitter I, Balázs J, et al. (February 2019). "Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD". European Psychiatry. 56: 14–34. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.11.001. PMID 30453134.
  6. ^ Ferri, Fred F. (2010). Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders (2nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Mosby. pp. Chapter A. ISBN 978-0323076999.
  7. ^ Zubler, MD, FAAP, Jennifer; Weitzman, MD, FAAP, Carol; Sloane, DO, Mark; Singh, MPA, Natasha; Senturias, MD, FAAP, Yasmin N.; Kosofsky, MD, PhD, Barry; Kable, PhD, Julie; Fernandez-Baca, MA, Daniel; Dang, MPH, Elizabeth; Chasnoff, MD, FAAP, Ira; Bertrand PhD, Jacquelyn; Balachova PhD, Tatiana; Hagan Jr. MD, FAAP, Joseph F. (2016). "Neurobehavioral Disorder Associated With Prenatal Alcohol Exposure" (PDF). Pediatrics. 138 (4). American Journal of Pediatrics: e20151553. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-1553. PMC 5477054. PMID 27677572. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 22 May 2020.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Coghill DR, Banaschewski T, Soutullo C, Cottingham MG, Zuddas A (November 2017). "Systematic review of quality of life and functional outcomes in randomized placebo-controlled studies of medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 26 (11): 1283–1307. doi:10.1007/s00787-017-0986-y. PMC 5656703. PMID 28429134.
  9. ^ Jain R, Katic A (August 2016). "Current and Investigational Medication Delivery Systems for Treating Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 18 (4). doi:10.4088/PCC.16r01979. PMID 27828696. S2CID 3807877.
  10. ^ a b GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators (October 2016). "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1545–1602. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. PMC 5055577. PMID 27733282. {{cite journal}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Sroubek A, Kelly M, Li X (February 2013). "Inattentiveness in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Neuroscience Bulletin. 29 (1): 103–10. doi:10.1007/s12264-012-1295-6. PMC 4440572. PMID 23299717.
  12. ^ Caroline SC, ed. (2010). Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 133. ISBN 9780387717982. Archived from the original on 29 August 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  13. ^ Faraone SV, Rostain AL, Blader J, Busch B, Childress AC, Connor DF, Newcorn JH (February 2019). "Practitioner Review: Emotional dysregulation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder - implications for clinical recognition and intervention". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 60 (2): 133–150. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12899. PMID 29624671. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  14. ^ Tenenbaum RB, Musser ED, Morris S, Ward AR, Raiker JS, Coles EK, Pelham WE (April 2019). "Response Inhibition, Response Execution, and Emotion Regulation among Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 47 (4): 589–603. doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0466-y. PMC 6377355. PMID 30112596.
  15. ^ Lenzi F, Cortese S, Harris J, Masi G (January 2018). "Pharmacotherapy of emotional dysregulation in adults with ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 84: 359–367. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.010. PMID 28837827. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  16. ^ a b Dulcan, Mina K.; Lake, MaryBeth (2011). "Axis I Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence: Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders". Concise Guide to Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (4th illustrated ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 34. ISBN 978-1-58562-416-4 – via Google Books.
  17. ^ Erskine HE, Norman RE, Ferrari AJ, Chan GC, Copeland WE, Whiteford HA, Scott JG (October 2016). "Long-Term Outcomes of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 55 (10): 841–50. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.06.016. PMID 27663939.
  18. ^ Walitza S, Drechsler R, Ball J (August 2012). "[The school child with ADHD]" [The school child with ADHD] (PDF). Therapeutische Umschau (in German). 69 (8): 467–73. doi:10.1024/0040-5930/a000316. PMID 22851461. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  19. ^ Demontis, Ditte (2019). "Discovery of the first genome-wide significant risk loci for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Nature Genetics. 51 (1): 63–75. doi:10.1038/s41588-018-0269-7. hdl:10138/309285. PMC 6481311. PMID 30478444. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2019. Consensus estimates from more than 30 twin studies indicate that the heritability of ADHD is 70–80% throughout the lifespan and that environmental risks are those not shared by siblings. Twin studies also suggest that diagnosed ADHD represents the extreme tail of one or more heritable quantitative traits.
  20. ^ Tiesler, Carla M. T.; Heinrich, Joachim (21 September 2014). "Prenatal nicotine exposure and child behavioural problems". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 23 (10): 913–929. doi:10.1007/s00787-014-0615-y. PMC 4186967. PMID 25241028.
  21. ^ "Does Bad Parenting Cause ADHD?". WebMD. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  22. ^ Willcutt EG (July 2012). "The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review". Neurotherapeutics. 9 (3): 490–9. doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0135-8. PMC 3441936. PMID 22976615.
  23. ^ Cowen, Philip; Harrison, Paul; Burns, Tom (2012). "Drugs and other physical treatments". Shorter Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 546. ISBN 978-0-19-960561-3 – via Google Books.
  24. ^ Faraone SV (2011). "Ch. 25: Epidemiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". In Tsuang MT, Tohen M, Jones P (eds.). Textbook of Psychiatric Epidemiology (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 450. ISBN 9780470977408. Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  25. ^ Crawford, Nicole (February 2003). "ADHD: a women's issue". Monitor on Psychology. 34 (2): 28. Archived from the original on 9 April 2017.
  26. ^ Emond V, Joyal C, Poissant H (April 2009). "[Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]" [Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]. L'Encephale (in French). 35 (2): 107–14. doi:10.1016/j.encep.2008.01.005. PMID 19393378.
  27. ^ Singh I (December 2008). "Beyond polemics: science and ethics of ADHD". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 9 (12): 957–64. doi:10.1038/nrn2514. PMID 19020513. S2CID 205504587.
  28. ^ Kooij SJ, Bejerot S, Blackwell A, Caci H, Casas-Brugué M, Carpentier PJ, Edvinsson D, Fayyad J, Foeken K, Fitzgerald M, Gaillac V, Ginsberg Y, Henry C, Krause J, Lensing MB, Manor I, Niederhofer H, Nunes-Filipe C, Ohlmeier MD, Oswald P, Pallanti S, Pehlivanidis A, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Rastam M, Ryffel-Rawak D, Stes S, Asherson P (September 2010). "European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD". BMC Psychiatry. 10: 67. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-10-67. PMC 2942810. PMID 20815868.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  29. ^ Bálint S, Czobor P, Mészáros A, Simon V, Bitter I (2008). "[Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a literature review]" [Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A literature review]. Psychiatria Hungarica (in Hungarian). 23 (5): 324–35. PMID 19129549.
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  31. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK) (2009). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder : diagnosis and management of ADHD in children, young people, and adults. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (Great Britain), National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (Great Britain), British Psychological Society., Royal College of Psychiatrists. Leicester: British Psychological Society. p. 17. ISBN 9781854334718. OCLC 244314955. PMID 22420012.
  32. ^ Gentile JP, Atiq R, Gillig PM (August 2006). "Adult ADHD: Diagnosis, Differential Diagnosis, and Medication Management". Psychiatry. 3 (8): 25–30. PMC 2957278. PMID 20963192. likelihood that the adult with ADHD has developed coping mechanisms to compensate for his or her impairment
  33. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (2009). "Pharmacological Treatment". Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines. Vol. 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. pp. 303–307. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016 – via NCBI Bookshelf.
  34. ^ "Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines" (PDF). Canadian ADHD Alliance. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
  35. ^ "Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Recommendations". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 24 June 2015. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  36. ^ Wolraich, ML; Hagan JF, Jr; Allan, C; Chan, E; Davison, D; Earls, M; Evans, SW; Flinn, SK; Froehlich, T; Frost, J; Holbrook, JR; Lehmann, CU; Lessin, HR; Okechukwu, K; Pierce, KL; Winner, JD; Zurhellen, W; SUBCOMMITTEE ON CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS WITH ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVE, DISORDER. (October 2019). "Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents". Pediatrics. 144 (4): e20192528. doi:10.1542/peds.2019-2528. PMC 7067282. PMID 31570648.
  37. ^ Storebø OJ, Pedersen N, Ramstad E, Kielsholm ML, Nielsen SS, Krogh HB, Moreira-Maia CR, Magnusson FL, Holmskov M, Gerner T, Skoog M, Rosendal S, Groth C, Gillies D, Buch Rasmussen K, Gauci D, Zwi M, Kirubakaran R, Håkonsen SJ, Aagaard L, Simonsen E, Gluud C (May 2018). "Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents - assessment of adverse events in non-randomised studies". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 5: CD012069. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012069.pub2. PMC 6494554. PMID 29744873.
  38. ^ "NIMH » The Multimodal Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Study (MTA):Questions and Answers". NIMH » Home. Archived from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 2019-01-01. Why were the MTA medication treatments more effective than community treatments that also usually included medication? Answer: There were substantial differences in quality and intensity between the study-provided medication treatments and those provided in the community care group.
  39. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (2009). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines. Vol. 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016 – via NCBI Bookshelf.
  40. ^ Huang YS, Tsai MH (July 2011). "Long-term outcomes with medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current status of knowledge". CNS Drugs. 25 (7): 539–54. doi:10.2165/11589380-000000000-00000. PMID 21699268. S2CID 3449435.
  41. ^ Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Kahle J, Young S (February 2015). "Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review". PLOS ONE. 10 (2): e0116407. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1016407A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116407. PMC 4340791. PMID 25714373. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |displayauthors= ignored (|display-authors= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  42. ^ Parker J, Wales G, Chalhoub N, Harpin V (September 2013). "The long-term outcomes of interventions for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials". Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 6: 87–99. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S49114. PMC 3785407. PMID 24082796. Results suggest there is moderate-to-high-level evidence that combined pharmacological and behavioral interventions, and pharmacological interventions alone can be effective in managing the core ADHD symptoms and academic performance at 14 months. However, the effect size may decrease beyond this period. ... Only one paper examining outcomes beyond 36 months met the review criteria. ... There is high level evidence suggesting that pharmacological treatment can have a major beneficial effect on the core symptoms of ADHD (hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity) in approximately 80% of cases compared with placebo controls, in the short term.22{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  43. ^ Wigal SB (2009). "Efficacy and safety limitations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacotherapy in children and adults". CNS Drugs. 23 Suppl 1: 21–31. doi:10.2165/00023210-200923000-00004. PMID 19621975. S2CID 11340058.
  44. ^ Lange KW, Reichl S, Lange KM, Tucha L, Tucha O (December 2010). "The history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder". Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders. 2 (4): 241–55. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0045-8. PMC 3000907. PMID 21258430.
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  47. ^ Sim MG, Hulse G, Khong E (August 2004). "When the child with ADHD grows up" (PDF). Australian Family Physician. 33 (8): 615–8. PMID 15373378. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015.
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  49. ^ Schonwald A, Lechner E (April 2006). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: complexities and controversies". Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 18 (2): 189–95. doi:10.1097/01.mop.0000193302.70882.70. PMID 16601502.
  50. ^ Weiss, Lawrence G. (2005). WISC-IV clinical use and interpretation scientist-practitioner perspectives (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-12-564931-5. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  51. ^ "ADHD: The Diagnostic Criteria". PBS. Frontline. Archived from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
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