User:CaraNeal/sandbox

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Paragraph: Set the style of your text. For example, make a header or plain paragraph text. You can also use it to offset block quotes.

A : Highlight your text, then click here to format it with bold, italics, etc. The “More” options allows you to underline (U), cross-out text (S), add code snippets ( { } ), change language keyboards (Aあ), and clear all formatting ().

Links: Highlight text and push this button to make it a link. The Visual Editor will automatically suggest related Wikipedia articles for that word or phrase. This is a great way to connect your article to more Wikipedia content. You only have to link important words once, usually during the first time they appear. If you want to link to pages outside of Wikipedia (for an “external links” section, for example) click on the “External link” tab.

Cite: The citation tool in the Visual Editor helps format your citations. You can simply paste a DOI or URL, and the Visual Editor will try to sort out all of the fields you Be sure to review it, however, and apply missing fields manually (if you know them). You can also add books, journals, news, and websites manually. That opens up a quick guide for inputting your citations. Once you've added a source, you can click the “re-use” tab to cite it again. ...

  1. Bullets:
  2. To add bullet points
  3. or a numbered list,
  4. click here.

Insert: This tab lets you add media, images, or tables.

Ω: This tab allows you to add special characters, such as those found in non-English words, scientific notation, and a handful of language extensions.§°≠≥•ĆẴt͡ɕ∞Δឈᐗᚺᛒ


Once you're done making an edit, leave an edit summary about what you did. For example, if you added a citation, you would write “added citation,” followed by a reason. For smaller edits you copyedited or grammatical mistakes you fixed, you can write “copyedited”. These short descriptions help other editors make sense of your edits.

If you're editing using the Visual Editor, clicking the “Publish changes” button will bring up a box to write your edit summary.

If you're editing in source editing (or Wikicode) mode, type your edit summary before you hit publish. There's a space to do that beneath the text area.

Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

Risks and Development

Individuals with developmental disabilities have an increased risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder compared to the general population due to heightened vulnerability to negative life experiences, including:

  • Interpersonal trauma [1]
  • Abuse [2]
  • Dependence on caregivers [3]
  • Lack of autonomy [3]
  • Diminished social support [3][4]
  • Harassment [5]
  • Stigma and prejudice [6]

Post-traumatic stress disorder is a psychological disorder that can develop after experiencing or witnessing trauma and is characterized by negative thoughts, memories, or dreams about the trauma, avoidance of reminders of the trauma, adverse changes in thinking and mood, and heightened acute stress response. [7] Post-traumatic stress disorder often goes undiagnosed among individuals with developmental disabilities due to providers' and caregivers' lack of understanding and communication. [8] [9]

Individuals with developmental disabilities may develop more intense symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder when compared to the general population due to maladaptive coping and neurological differences. [10] [9]. These symptoms may manifest differently depending on the severity of the disability; post-traumatic stress disorder may present as challenging behaviors such as aggression and self-harm, and communication of symptoms may be limited by verbal ability. [9] Mental health problems are often reported by proxy rather than self-report, which can increase the risk of underreporting and of psychological symptoms going undiagnosed. [11][12]

Psychological Treatment

Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment approaches for post-traumatic stress disorder typically require verbal communication and insight into cognitions, emotions, and functioning. [1] Individual differences in communication and intellectual ability among individuals with developmental disabilities can limit identification and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. [9] [12] Thus, diagnosis and treatment approaches should be modified to fit the individual. [9]

Individuals with developmental disabilities may have difficulty understanding and articulating negative thought processes and emotions associated with traumatic events. Metaphors, simplified explanations, and explicit examples may help elucidate symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and improve understanding of treatment approaches.[9] Frequent prompting, repetition of explanations, and developing detailed timelines of life events may also improve focus and engagement in psychological treatment. [9] Providers should clearly understand individual needs and abilities and ensure that expectations for treatment are consistent with individual abilities and functioning. [9]

The following trauma-specific treatments have demonstrated efficacy among individuals with developmental disabilities, particularly when tailored to individual needs and presentation. [9]

Child-Parent Psychotherapy

Child-parent psychotherapy is a relational treatment that focuses on improving child-parent relationships and functioning following a young child's exposure to one or more traumatic experiences. This treatment is designed to enhance the attachment relationships between children and their caregivers, eliciting a sense of safety and improving emotional regulation and behavior. [13] [9] Children with developmental disabilities have a higher risk of exposure to traumatic events than children within the general population. [13] Child-parent psychotherapy can be adapted to accommodate non-verbal communication, making it a good fit for children with a wide range of developmental disabilities. Child-parent psychotherapy has been demonstrated to reduce symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in children with developmental disabilities and may help enhance caregivers' understanding of their children's disabilities and individual needs. [13] [9]

Exposure Therapy

Exposure-based therapies are the most common treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder. [9] [14] Exposure therapy involves exposing a patient to a source of stress (such as a memory or reminder of a traumatic event) to increase tolerance to feared stimuli, overcome avoidance, and gradually reduce acute stress response symptoms of post-traumatic stress. [14] Exposure therapy should be carefully tailored to the individual when treating individuals with developmental disabilities to reduce the risk of re-traumatization. [14] There is evidence that exposure therapy paired with relaxation techniques, cognitive restructuring, and problem-solving can reduce symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder among individuals with developmental disabilities. [9] [14]

Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy is a short-term treatment that focuses on reducing and changing negative and unhelpful thought processes related to traumatic experiences and processing and managing associated negative emotions. [9] [15] Differences in language and thinking can make cognitive-based interventions challenging for individuals with developmental disabilities. Still, there is evidence that trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy can be adapted to be accessible and beneficial for individuals with mild developmental disabilities. [15]

Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing

Eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing is a psychological treatment in which the patient's stress is reduced by associating traumatic experiences with bilateral stimulation such as rapid, rhythmic eye movements or tapping.[16] Eye-movement desensitization is demonstrated to be highly effective at reducing symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder across individuals with varrying severity of intellectual disabilities. [9] Eye-movement desensitization can be adapted for individuals with limited language abilities, making it accessible to a wide range of developmental disabilities. [17] [9]




  1. ^ a b Wigham, S.; Taylor, J. L.; Hatton, C. (2014). "A prospective study of the relationship between adverse life events and trauma in adults with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities". Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 58 (12): 1131–1140. doi:10.1111/jir.12107. ISSN 1365-2788.
  2. ^ Hastings, R. P.; Hatton, C.; Taylor, J. L.; Maddison, C. (2004-01). "Life events and psychiatric symptoms in adults with intellectual disabilities". Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 48 (1): 42–46. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2004.00584.x. ISSN 0964-2633. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ a b c Lunsky, Y.; Benson, B. A. (2001-04). "Association between perceived social support and strain, and positive and negative outcome for adults with mild intellectual disability". Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 45 (2): 106–114. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.2001.00334.x. ISSN 0964-2633. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ Feldman, Maurice A.; Varghese, Jean; Ramsay, Jennifer; Rajska, Danuta (2002-12). "Relationships between Social Support, Stress and Mother-Child Interactions in Mothers with Intellectual Disabilities". Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 15 (4): 314–323. doi:10.1046/j.1468-3148.2002.00132.x. ISSN 1360-2322. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ Martorell, Almudena; Tsakanikos, Elias (2008-09). "Traumatic experiences and life events in people with intellectual disability". Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 21 (5): 445–448. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e328305e60e. ISSN 0951-7367. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ Andrews, Erin E.; Forber-Pratt, Anjali J.; Mona, Linda R.; Lund, Emily M.; Pilarski, Carrie R.; Balter, Rochelle (2019-05). "#SaytheWord: A disability culture commentary on the erasure of "disability"". Rehabilitation Psychology. 64 (2): 111–118. doi:10.1037/rep0000258. ISSN 1939-1544. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ Force., American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5 Task (2017). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association. ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1. OCLC 1042815534.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Brackenridge, Irene; Morrissey, Catrin (2010-09-27). "Trauma and post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a high secure forensic learning disability population: future directions for practice". Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities. 4 (3): 49–56. doi:10.5042/amhid.2010.0544. ISSN 2044-1282.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Keesler, John M. (2020-12). "Trauma‐Specific Treatment for Individuals With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: A Review of the Literature From 2008 to 2018". Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities. 17 (4): 332–345. doi:10.1111/jppi.12347. ISSN 1741-1122. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ Spratt, Eve G.; Nicholas, Joyce S.; Brady, Kathleen T.; Carpenter, Laura A.; Hatcher, Charles R.; Meekins, Kirk A.; Furlanetto, Richard W.; Charles, Jane M. (2012-01). "Enhanced Cortisol Response to Stress in Children in Autism". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 42 (1): 75–81. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1214-0. ISSN 0162-3257. PMC 3245359. PMID 21424864. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  11. ^ Fujiura, Glenn T.; the RRTC Expert Panel on Health Measurement (2012-08-01). "Self-Reported Health of People with Intellectual Disability". Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. 50 (4): 352–369. doi:10.1352/1934-9556-50.4.352. ISSN 1934-9491.
  12. ^ a b Scott, Haleigh M.; Havercamp, Susan M. (2018-04-03). "Comparison of Self- and Proxy Report of Mental Health Symptoms in People With Intellectual Disabilities". Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 11 (2): 143–156. doi:10.1080/19315864.2018.1431746. ISSN 1931-5864.
  13. ^ a b c Harley, Eliza K.; Williams, Marian E.; Zamora, Irina; Lakatos, Patricia P. (2014-11-07). "Trauma Treatment in Young Children with Developmental Disabilities: Applications of the Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP) Model to the Cases of "James" and "Juan"". Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy. 10 (3): 156–195. doi:10.14713/pcsp.v10i3.1869. ISSN 1553-0124.
  14. ^ a b c d Joseph, Jeremy S.; Gray, Matt J. (2008). "Exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder". The Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender and Victim Treatment and Prevention. 1 (4): 69–79. doi:10.1037/h0100457. ISSN 2155-8655.
  15. ^ a b Stenfert Kroese, Biza; Willott, Sara; Taylor, Frances; Smith, Philippa; Graham, Ruth; Rutter, Tara; Stott, Andrew; Willner, Paul (2016-09-05). "Trauma-focussed cognitive-behaviour therapy for people with mild intellectual disabilities: outcomes of a pilot study". Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities. 10 (5): 299–310. doi:10.1108/AMHID-05-2016-0008. ISSN 2044-1282.
  16. ^ Feske, Ulrike (22/1998). "Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 5 (2): 171–181. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00142.x. ISSN 1468-2850. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ Barrowcliff, Alastair L.; Evans, Gemma A. L (2015-03-02). "EMDR treatment for PTSD and Intellectual Disability: a case study". Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities. 9 (2): 90–98. doi:10.1108/AMHID-09-2014-0034. ISSN 2044-1282.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:CaraNeal/sandbox&oldid=1050462846"