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Introduction

A plasma globe, using electrical energy to create plasma, light, heat, movement and a faint sound

In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek ἐνέργεια (enérgeia) 'activity') is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity—the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J).

Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system. All living organisms constantly take in and release energy.

Due to mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy.

Human civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy). (Full article...)

Selected article

Petroleum (crude oil) is a naturally occurring liquid fossil fuel found in rock formations in the Earth, consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various lengths. Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative abundance, petroleum has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid 1950s. Most petroleum is used for producing gasoline (petrol) and fuel oil, both important primary energy sources. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products.

Most petroleum is extracted from oil wells found in oil fields. Although it is also possible to extract petroleum from oil shale or tar sands, both of which are known to exist in large quantities, doing so at low cost and without impacting the environment remains a challenge. The first modern oil well was drilled in 1848 in Azerbaijan, but it was the introduction of the internal combustion engine in the early 20th century that provided the demand that has largely sustained the industry to this day. The top three oil producing countries are Saudi Arabia, Russia, and the United States.

Burning oil releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, one of the major greenhouse gases contributing to global warming. Bioethanol and biodiesel are already used to some extent as alternatives, notably in Brazil, as are hybrid electric vehicles. Trials using hydrogen fuel are also in progress. There are further concerns about security of supply, oil price rises and whether world oil production may reach a peak, before declining, as predicted by Hubbert peak theory.

Selected image

Photo credit: Andreas Tille
Geysers erupt periodically due to surface water being heated by geothermal heat.

Did you know?

The Geysers

• The Power of Community: How Cuba Survived Peak Oil is a documentary film which details Cuba's efforts to recover from the 1990s economic crisis known as the Special Period?

• The Geysers (pictured), north of San Francisco, California, is the largest geothermal power development in the world?

• The International Energy Agency was founded in 1974 by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis?

• Indian Railways has started to use Jatropha oil, blended with diesel fuel in various ratios, to power its Diesel locomotives?

• The South Wales Gas Pipeline is the largest high pressure gas pipeline in the United Kingdom?

• The Presbyterian Church (USA) was the first major religious denomination in the world to call on its followers to become carbon neutral?

• There was partial meltdown at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in 1979?

• A hybrid electric vehicle achieves better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle without being hampered by the limited range of an electric vehicle?

Selected biography

James E. Hansen (born March 29, 1941) heads the NASA Institute for Space Studies and is currently an adjunct professor in the Earth and Environmental Sciences department at Columbia University. He is best known for his testimony on climate change to congressional committees in the 1980s that helped raise broad awareness of global warming.

Hansen studied at the University of Iowa, obtaining a B.A. in Physics and Mathematics, an M.S. in Astronomy and a Ph.D. in Physics. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1996 and received the Heinz Environment Award for his research on global warming in 2001.

Hansen is a vocal critic of the Bush Administration's ideology on climate change. In 2005 and 2006, he claimed that NASA administrators have tried to influence his public statements about the causes of climate change. He has also claimed that the White House edited climate-related press releases from federal agencies to make global warming seem less threatening, and that he is unable to speak 'freely', without the backlash of other government officials.

Hansen has said that a global tipping point will be reached by 2016 if levels of greenhouse gases are not reduced. After this point global warming becomes unstoppable. As a result he claims that there may be a rise in sea levels by as much as 10 feet (3 metres) by 2100.

General images

The following are images from various energy-related articles on Wikipedia.

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  Measurement of the tailrace and forebay rates at the Limestone Generating Station in Manitoba, Canada. (from Hydroelectricity)
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  The Ikata Nuclear Power Plant, a pressurized water reactor that cools by utilizing a secondary coolant heat exchanger with a large body of water, an alternative cooling approach to large cooling towers (from Nuclear power)
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  South and South-East Asia (from Solar power)
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  Community solar farm in the town of Wheatland, Wisconsin (from Solar power)
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  The nuclear fuel cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and manufactured into nuclear fuel (1), which is delivered to a nuclear power plant. After use, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to a final repository (3). In nuclear reprocessing 95% of spent fuel can potentially be recycled to be returned to use in a power plant (4). (from Nuclear power)
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  Construction close to high pressure gas transmission pipelines is discouraged, often with standing warning signs. (from Natural gas)
• 
  Deaths caused as a result of fossil fuel use (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of sustainable energy (rectangles barely visible in chart). (from Sustainable energy)
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  Neste Oil refinery in Porvoo, Finland (from Oil refinery)
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  Electricity production by source (from Solar power)
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  Battery storage facility
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  Global geothermal electric capacity. Upper red line is installed capacity; lower green line is realized production. (from Geothermal power)
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  Growth of worldwide nuclear power generation (from Nuclear power)
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  Several countries and the European Union have committed to dates for all new cars to be zero-emissions vehicles. (from Sustainable energy)
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  US Natural Gas Marketed Production 1900 to 2012 (US EIA data) (from Natural gas)
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  Sample of gasoline (from Oil refinery)
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  North America (from Solar power)
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  Most waste packaging, small-scale experimental fuel recycling chemistry and radiopharmaceutical refinement is conducted within remote-handled hot cells. (from Nuclear power)
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  Guri Dam, a hydroelectric dam in Venezuela (from Sustainable energy)
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  Benefitting from favorable policies and declining costs of modules, photovoltaic solar installation has grown consistently, with China expected to account for 50% of new global solar photovoltaic projects by 2024. (from Solar power)
• 
  Trends in the top five natural gas-producing countries (US EIA data) (from Natural gas)
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  Oil refinery in Iran (from Oil refinery)
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  Construction of the Salt Tanks which provide efficient thermal energy storage so that output can be provided after sunset, and output can be scheduled to meet demand requirements. The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is designed to provide six hours of energy storage. This allows the plant to generate about 38% of its rated capacity over the course of a year. (from Solar power)
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  A pipeline odorant injection station (from Natural gas)
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  Passive cooling features, such as these windcatcher towers in Iran, bring cool air into buildings without any use of energy. (from Sustainable energy)
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  Baton Rouge Refinery (the fifth-largest in the United States) (from Oil refinery)
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  The location of shale gas compared to other types of gas deposits (from Natural gas)
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  Polyethylene plastic main being placed in a trench (from Natural gas)
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  Refinery, Bayport Industrial Complex, Harris County, Texas (from Oil refinery)
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  Cracks at the historic Town Hall of Staufen im Breisgau presumed due to damage from geothermal drilling (from Geothermal power)
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  A gas bill from Baltimore, Maryland, 1834, for manufactured coal gas, before the introduction of ground-extracted methane gas. (from Natural gas)
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  The Hoover Dam in the United States is a large conventional dammed-hydro facility, with an installed capacity of 2,080 MW. (from Hydroelectricity)
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  The share of electricity production from solar, 2022 (from Solar power)
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  Yearly hydro generation by continent (from Hydroelectricity)
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  A parabolic collector concentrates sunlight onto a tube in its focal point. (from Solar power)
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  Global energy usage is highly unequal. High income countries such as the United States and Canada use 100 times as much energy per capita as some of the least developed countries in Africa. (from Sustainable energy)
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  Thomas Young - the first to use the term "energy" in the modern sense, in 1802. (from History of energy)
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  The multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG), used in several space missions such as the Curiosity Mars rover (from Nuclear power)
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  Typical composition of uranium dioxide fuel before and after approximately three years in the once-through nuclear fuel cycle of a LWR (from Nuclear power)
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  The town of Pripyat abandoned since 1986, with the Chernobyl plant and the Chernobyl New Safe Confinement arch in the distance (from Nuclear power)
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  The Warwick Castle water-powered generator house, used for the generation of electricity for the castle from 1894 until 1940 (from Hydroelectricity)
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  South America (from Solar power)
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  A comparison of prices over time for energy from nuclear fission and from other sources. Over the presented time, thousands of wind turbines and similar were built on assembly lines in mass production resulting in an economy of scale. While nuclear remains bespoke, many first of their kind facilities added in the timeframe indicated and none are in serial production. Our World in Data notes that this cost is the global average, while the 2 projects that drove nuclear pricing upwards were in the US. The organization recognises that the median cost of the most exported and produced nuclear energy facility in the 2010s the South Korean APR1400, remained "constant", including in export.
  LCOE is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime. As a metric, it remains controversial as the lifespan of units are not independent but manufacturer projections, not a demonstrated longevity. (from Nuclear power)
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  Sulphur (from Oil refinery)
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  The outdoor section of a heat pump. In contrast to oil and gas boilers, they use electricity and are highly efficient. As such, electrification of heating can significantly reduce emissions. (from Sustainable energy)
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  The guided-missile cruiser USS Monterey (CG 61) receives fuel at sea (FAS) from the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS George Washington (CVN 73). (from Nuclear power)
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  Manhole for domestic gas supply, London, UK (from Natural gas)
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  Comparison of natural gas prices in Japan, United Kingdom, and United States, 2007–2011 (from Natural gas)
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  Buildings in the Solar Settlement at Schlierberg, Germany, produce more energy than they consume. They incorporate rooftop solar panels and are built for maximum energy efficiency. (from Sustainable energy)
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  Activity of spent UOx fuel in comparison to the activity of natural uranium ore over time (from Nuclear power)
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  Electrified transport and renewable energy are key areas of investment for the renewable energy transition. (from Sustainable energy)
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  Proportions of the isotopes uranium-238 (blue) and uranium-235 (red) found in natural uranium and in enriched uranium for different applications. Light water reactors use 3–5% enriched uranium, while CANDU reactors work with natural uranium. (from Nuclear power)
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  Sample of crude oil (petroleum) (from Oil refinery)
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  A geothermal power station in Negros Oriental, Philippines (from Geothermal power)
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  Acceptance of wind and solar facilities in one's community is stronger among U.S. Democrats (blue), while acceptance of nuclear power plants is stronger among U.S. Republicans (red). (from Solar power)
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  Grangemouth Refinery, in Scotland (from Oil refinery)
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  The launching ceremony of the USS Nautilus January 1954. In 1958 it would become the first vessel to reach the North Pole. (from Nuclear power)
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  For cooking, electric induction stoves are one of the most energy-efficient and safest options. (from Sustainable energy)
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  Europe (from Solar power)
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  Nuclear waste flasks generated by the United States during the Cold War are stored underground at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in New Mexico. The facility is seen as a potential demonstration for storing spent fuel from civilian reactors. (from Nuclear power)
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  A woman in rural Rajasthan, India, collects firewood. The use of wood and other polluting fuels for cooking causes millions of deaths each year from indoor and outdoor air pollution. (from Sustainable energy)
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  Natural gas processing plant in Aderklaa, Lower Austria (from Natural gas)
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  Pile of asphalt-covered aggregate for formation into asphalt concrete (from Oil refinery)
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  Clean energy investment has benefited from post-pandemic economic recovery, a global energy crisis involving high fossil fuel prices, and growing policy support across various nations. (from Sustainable energy)
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  A sugarcane plantation to produce ethanol in Brazil (from Sustainable energy)
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  Deaths caused by use of fossil fuels such as natural gas (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of renewable energy (rectangles barely visible in chart). (from Natural gas)
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  Natural gas burning on a gas stove (from Natural gas)
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  Russia was a key oil and gas supplier to Europe (map from 2013). This changed with the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022. (from Energy policy)
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  United States and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2006. The Megatons to Megawatts Program was the main driving force behind the sharp reduction in the quantity of nuclear weapons worldwide since the cold war ended. (from Nuclear power)
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  Africa and Middle East (from Solar power)
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  Map of solar resources from World bank (from Solar power)
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  Yearly geothermal generation by continent (from Geothermal power)
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  The first light bulbs ever lit by electricity generated by nuclear power at EBR-1 at Argonne National Laboratory-West, December 20, 1951. (from Nuclear power)
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  The status of nuclear power globally (click for legend) (from Nuclear power)
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  Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System with all three towers under load (from Solar power)
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  A breakdown of the products made from a typical barrel of US oil (from Oil refinery)
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  The Ffestiniog Power Station can generate 360 MW of electricity within 60 seconds of the demand arising. (from Hydroelectricity)
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  Yearly solar generation by continent (from Solar power)
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  Since 1985, the proportion of electricity generated from low-carbon sources has increased only slightly. Advances in deploying renewables have been mostly offset by declining shares of nuclear power. (from Sustainable energy)
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  Hydro generation by country, 2021 (from Hydroelectricity)
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  Refinery of Slovnaft in Bratislava (from Oil refinery)
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  Countries by natural gas proven reserves (2014), based on data from The World Factbook (from Natural gas)
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  The growth of solar PV on a semi-log scale since 1996 (from Solar power)
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  Dry cask storage vessels storing spent nuclear fuel assemblies (from Nuclear power)
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  Gas network emergency vehicle responding to a major fire in Kyiv, Ukraine (from Natural gas)
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  Part of the 354 MW Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) parabolic trough solar complex in northern San Bernardino County, California (from Solar power)
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  Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies, median values calculated by IPCC (from Nuclear power)
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  Nuclear fuel assemblies being inspected before entering a pressurized water reactor in the United States (from Nuclear power)
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  The oil refinery in Haifa, Israel, is capable of processing about 9 million tons (66 million barrels) of crude oil a year. Its two cooling towers are landmarks of the city's skyline. (from Oil refinery)
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  Jamnagar Refinery, the world's largest oil refinery, in Gujarat, India (from Oil refinery)
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  Cooling towers at a geothermal power plant in Larderello, Italy
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  Actual annual deployments of solar PV vs predictions by the IEA for the period 2002–2016. Predictions have largely and consistently underestimated actual growth. (from Solar power)
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  Death rates from air pollution and accidents related to energy production, measured in deaths in the past per terawatt hours (TWh) (from Nuclear power)
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  Anti-nuclear protest near nuclear waste disposal centre at Gorleben in northern Germany (from Nuclear power)
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  World map showing where people without access to electricity lived in 2016⁠—mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent (from Sustainable energy)
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  Schematic flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant (from Natural gas)
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  A Washington, D.C. Metrobus, which runs on natural gas (from Natural gas)
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  Share of electricity production from nuclear, 2022 (from Nuclear power)
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  The Three Gorges Dam in Central China is the world's largest power-producing facility of any kind. (from Hydroelectricity)
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  Sample of kerosene (from Oil refinery)
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  Utility cycling infrastructure, such as this bike lane in Vancouver, encourages sustainable transport. (from Sustainable energy)
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  Kenyan dairy farmer lighting a biogas lamp. Biogas produced from biomass is a renewable energy source that can be burned for cooking or light. (from Sustainable energy)
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  Reactor decay heat as a fraction of full power after the reactor shutdown, using two different correlations. To remove the decay heat, reactors need cooling after the shutdown of the fission reactions. A loss of the ability to remove decay heat caused the Fukushima accident. (from Nuclear power)
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  Schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit as used in petroleum crude oil refineries (from Oil refinery)
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  Crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation. The fractions at the top of the fractionating column have lower boiling points than the fractions at the bottom. The heavy bottom fractions are often cracked into lighter, more useful products. All of the fractions are processed further in other refining units. (from Oil refinery)
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  motor oil (from Oil refinery)
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  Natural gas extraction by countries in cubic meters per year around 2013 (from Natural gas)
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  Greenhouse gas emissions per energy source. Solar power is one of the sources with the least greenhouse gas emissions. (from Solar power)
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  A micro-hydro facility in Vietnam (from Hydroelectricity)
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  Olkiluoto 3 under construction in 2009. It was the first EPR, a modernized PWR design, to start construction. (from Nuclear power)
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  Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the world's worst nuclear accident since 1986, 50,000 households were displaced after radiation leaked into the air, soil and sea. Radiation checks led to bans of some shipments of vegetables and fish. (from Nuclear power)
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  Museum Hydroelectric power plant "Under the Town" in Užice, Serbia, built in 1900. (from Hydroelectricity)
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  Enhanced geothermal system 1:Reservoir 2:Pump house 3:Heat exchanger 4:Turbine hall 5:Production well 6:Injection well 7:Hot water to district heating 8:Porous sediments 9:Observation well 10:Crystalline bedrock (from Geothermal power)
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  Anacortes Refinery, on the north end of March Point southeast of Anacortes, Washington, United States (from Oil refinery)
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  Example of energy policy decisions: The goal of the Southern Gas Corridor, which connects the giant Shah Deniz gas field in Azerbaijan to Europe, is to reduce Europe's dependency on Russian gas. (from Energy policy)
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  The Calder Hall nuclear power station in the United Kingdom, the world's first commercial nuclear power station. (from Nuclear power)
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  Burning of natural gas coming out of the ground (from Natural gas)
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  Natural gas drilling rig in Texas, US (from Natural gas)
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  Sample of diesel fuel (from Oil refinery)
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  Trends in the top five geothermal electricity-generating countries, 1980–2012 (US EIA) (from Geothermal power)
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  Share of electricity production from hydropower, 2022 (from Hydroelectricity)
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  Australia (from Solar power)
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  Fire-extinguishing operations after the Texas City refinery explosion (from Oil refinery)
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  The 120-MW_e Nesjavellir power station in southwest Iceland (from Geothermal power)
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  Installed geothermal energy capacity, 2022 (from Geothermal power)
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  A photovoltaic power station in California, United States
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  The warming influence (called radiative forcing) of long-lived greenhouse gases has increased substantially in the last 40 years, with carbon dioxide and methane being the dominant drivers of global warming. (from Natural gas)
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  Wind turbines in Xinjiang, China
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  Geothermal generation by country, 2021 (from Geothermal power)
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  Geothermal power center in the Usulután Department, El Salvador (from Geothermal power)
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  The Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant in Switzerland (from Nuclear power)
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  Cylinders of liquified petroleum gas (from Oil refinery)
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  Part of the Senftenberg Solarpark, a solar photovoltaic power plant located on former open-pit mining areas close to the city of Senftenberg, in Eastern Germany. The 78 MW Phase 1 of the plant was completed within three months. (from Solar power)
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  Peoples Gas Manlove Field natural gas storage area in Newcomb Township, Champaign County, Illinois. In the foreground (left) is one of the numerous wells for the underground storage area, with an LNG plant, and above-ground storage tanks are in the background (right). (from Natural gas)
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  Pico hydroelectricity in Mondulkiri, Cambodia (from Hydroelectricity)
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  Net metering, unlike a feed-in tariff, requires only one meter, but it must be bi-directional. (from Solar power)
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  Merowe Dam in Sudan. Hydroelectric power stations that use dams submerge large areas of land due to the requirement of a reservoir. These changes to land color or albedo, alongside certain projects that concurrently submerge rainforests, can in these specific cases result in the global warming impact, or equivalent life-cycle greenhouse gases of hydroelectricity projects, to potentially exceed that of coal power stations. (from Hydroelectricity)
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  Schematic of the ITER tokamak under construction in France (from Nuclear power)
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  Schematics of a grid-connected residential PV power system (from Solar power)
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  Storage tanks and towers at Shell Puget Sound Refinery (Shell Oil Company), Anacortes, Washington (from Oil refinery)
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  Seasonal cycle of capacity factors for wind and photovoltaics in Europe shown under idealized assumptions. The figure illustrates the balancing effects of wind and solar energy at the seasonal scale (Kaspar et al., 2019). (from Solar power)
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  Bloomberg NEF reported that in 2022, global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time. (from Sustainable energy)

Quotations

• "There are only two ways to stabilize concentration of greenhouse gases. One is to avoid emitting them in the first place; the other is to try to capture them after they're created. And there are problems with both approaches." – George W. Bush, 2001
• "The planet has a fever. If your baby has a fever you go to the doctor. If the doctor says you need to intervene here, you don't say, 'Well, I read a science fiction novel that told me it's not a problem.' If the crib's on fire, you don't speculate that the baby is flame retardant. You take action." – Al Gore, 2007
• "If the climate researchers' reports are to be believed, global warming is a huge medium and long-term threat, one which could have dramatic consequences such as refugee flows and armed conflicts." – Angela Merkel, 2007

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