Regulation of emotion

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Regulation of emotion describes ways that people attempt to regulate their emotions, for instance by denying, intensifying, weakening, curtailing, masking, or completely hiding them. Emotion regulation can also be described as the process in which people modify their emotional reactions—the coping processes that increase or decrease the intensity of the moment.[1]

Human lives can be divided into three major stages: childhood, adolescence and adulthood. During each of these phases regulation of emotions drastically improves. There are individual differences in the way people regulate their emotions and in how well they do it. People who are good at it are seen as more emotionally intelligent. Emotion regulation is essential to socialization and is dependent on the culture one lives in as well as the specific social context of the situation.

The process of regulating emotions is complex, and involves four stages:[2]

  1. internal feeling states (i.e. the subjective experience of emotion)
  2. emotion-related cognitions (e.g. thought reactions to a situation)
  3. emotion-related physiological processes (e.g. heart rate, hormonal, or other physiological reactions)
  4. emotion-related behavior (e.g. actions or facial expressions related to emotion).

Strong emotional reactions are not always desirable, may be inconsistent with social norms, or may cause physical or psychological suffering. Thus people attempt to inhibit undesirable or painful emotions and enhance desirable or pleasant emotions.[3]

Childhood

It is difficult for children to regulate their emotions. This is why whenever a child needs or wants something they often cry or throw temper tantrums until they get it. As children get older the frequency and intensity of these outbursts decline.[4] When children learn to talk it gives them a different way to regulate their emotions. The child can now talk about what is bothering him instead of only being able to communicate through expressions or actions.[5] Being able to talk about emotional issues may also have a major impact on the relationship between child and parent. And as children mature they begin to argue instead of using physical violence, wait rather than wail, and contain their emotions instead of exploding into emotional rage.[6] Something else that factors into this is the development of mobility, because along with walking comes the child's ability to satisfy some of his own desires without parental involvement. This acquired autonomy also lessens the child's need for an intense signaling system.[7]

Adolescence

The neurological changes that take place during adolescence improve the regulation of emotion over the course of adolescence, particularly maturation of the frontal lobes. The frontal lobes are essential for controlling attention and inhibiting thoughts and behaviors.[8] This leads to them being able to inhibit undesirable or painful emotions and enhance desirable or pleasant emotions. By learning this adolescents can attempt to suppress their emotions and attempt to reappraise the situation. Suppression may decrease expression but it tends to increase arousal and it tends to impair memory. While reappraisal may be more difficult to do, it can decrease the subjective experience of the emotion the expression of the emotion, and it does so without impairing memory.[3] Therefore, as adolescents grow in maturity they also learn how to regulate their emotions, which has both positive and negative effects on their relationships with family and friends.

Adulthood

Issues of emotional regulations affect us especially in our later life. When people get older their motivation increases to take out the emotional meaning in life, instead of expanding their emotional boundaries.[9][clarification needed] Things such as social losses and health changes increase as we get older. However, people tend to increase their emotional regulation skills as they age,[10] which can lead to certain other emotional problems. As we age, our autonomic nervous system decreases, yet emotional experiences do not change. Adults have several motivations for regulating emotions—including hedonic motivation (pain/pleasure), conforming to social roles, facilitating task or role performance, managing self-presentation, and regulating the feelings of others.[3]

Emotional effects

Regulation of emotion is something that becomes a habit throughout our lives. However it is something that is essential to our socialization. Emotional dysregulation is something that happens to individuals who cannot sway their emotions or change them to the social situation are often more likely to have emotional disorders. The types of emotional disorders that come out of having greater intensity, greater lability, and less effective regulations were more liable to depression and problem behaviors. Impairment of emotion regulation among women who were exposed to interpersonal violence and suffer from related posttraumatic stress disorder has been shown to adversely affect their caregiving behavior with their young children and, in turn, their young children's development of emotion regulation.[11][12] Individuals who habitually suppress negative emotions tend to find short-term relief, but suffer longer term health consequences, thought suppression and rumination.[3] Not all emotional regulation is bad however, the ability to regulate one’s emotions could determine the amount or quality of ones relationships and social interactions. This idea suggests that people who are able to regulate their emotions should have a higher level of emotional intelligence. Therefore, they develop a deeper understanding of how other people might feel in different situations, which most likely would result in well-developed interpersonal and intrapersonal skills. This means that these individuals would be considered better friends than individuals with a lower understanding of emotion regulation.[13]

Emotion regulation occurs at different levels in individuals and situations. A higher amount of emotional intelligence allows for an effective regulation of emotions. Individuals who reappraise negative emotions tend to share their emotions with others, which may cause short-term discomfort. However reappraisal tends to facilitate long-term emotional adjustment and physical and psychological health.[3]

The Effects of Reappraisal and Suppression of Emotion

Brain Activity

The brain functions differently when an individual utilizes suppression or reappraisal in order to regulate his or her emotions. The major effects of the regulation of emotion affects activity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). “Reappraisal increased activity in cognitive PFC regions and decreased amygdala and insula responses”.[14] Reappraisal has an affect to a "cognitive control, strategy selection, implementation, and monitoring [as well as to] appear to function in conjunction with left ventrolateral PFC, superior temporal, and posterior parietal lobe regions involved in linguistic processing".[14] The use of reappraisal can be found to implement activity in the peripheral and central physiological responses.[15] Effects in these areas are not detrimental to unproductive brain activity as would be found when employing suppression as an emotion regulation strategy.

Suppression of emotion, does not enhance productive activity in the PFC. The strategy inhibits the processing of new information to the brain as well as increases physiological activity.[14] Focusing on hiding emotions may cause an individual to be more alert than he or she desires. Emotions that are not high in intensity can be suppressed successfully. The higher intensity of an emotion the more damage to the physiological and psychological functions in brain activity.[14] In order to keep an individual's true emotions from being exhibited in his or her facial expression, they were required to relinquish the negative emotions immediately.

The strategies of suppression versus reappraisal have different reaction times in brain activity. When an individual appraises his or her emotions it will take around 0-4.5 seconds to take effect in the medial and left ventrolateral PFC of the individual’s brain activity.[14] While at a later time, the amygdala and insula begin to recognize brain activity around 10.5–15 seconds. Suppression occurs at a much slower rate than reappraisal, 10.5–15 seconds, and functions in the areas of the following areas of the brain’s cognitive control (PFC) such as the “visual-sensory multimodal association (posterior occipito-temporal lobes), and visual-spatial (precuneus and occipital areas) processing”.[14] The act of reappraising will reduce sympathetic physiological feedback while suppression will increase cardiovascular activation.

Positive Outcomes of Utilizing Reappraisal

Past research has determined reappraisal to be more of a successful option when regulating emotions because the functions do not have negative effects to an individual as that of suppressing one’s emotions. Utilizing reappraisal over suppression can avoid an individual from experiencing a loss of memory, provides an opportunity to tolerate negative emotion as well as prohibits the expression of negative emotion.[16] Reappraisal is thought of as an antecedent-focused strategy, meaning that individuals tend to think how emotions will be changed in certain circumstances before the event occurs. Using reappraisal is most beneficial for an individual because one could mentally and emotionally prepare oneself for the chance of altering his or hers emotions. For example, instead of thinking of applying to graduate school as the potential opportunity for a higher advancement in yearly income, one could think of obtaining a graduate degree in order for he or she to further their education and understanding.

Other positive aspects of reappraisal can be seen in how the technique can enhance overall well-being. The ability for one to mentally prepare himself or herself for a traumatic event could prevent them from being unprepared emotionally when the event does occur. Suppression and reappraisal had effects on individuals while watching a videos of an arm amputation.[16] The participants were instructed to either think about how the films made them feel (reappraisal), to not allow their emotions to be seen on his or her face (suppression), or were given no direction but to watch the film (control). Individuals who were told to reappraise their feelings had a decrease in facial expression and no alterations to their cardiovascular activity in contrast to those were instructed to suppress their emotions.

Negative Outcomes of Utilizing Suppression

In contrast to reappraisal, suppression is considered to be a response-focused strategy. Response-focused strategy as a response after an event occurs; controlling one’s emotions after he or she has experienced an emotionally drawing event.[16] Suppression is a negative strategy to use when regulating emotions because one isn’t prepared to manipulate his or her emotions. Since an individual may be distracted by trying to control their emotions it could lead to a loss of memory or an increase in a negative mood.

Another factor pointing towards why suppression is not a desired choice to regulate one’s emotion is because suppression may moderate negative emotion temporarily instead of ridding of the emotion altogether. When in an individual finds himself or herself in an emotional suppressing situation or attempting to hide emotions with a social exchange partner, controlling his or her emotions may an individual to be more alert of the situation instead of their goal of decreasing emotional reaction.[15]

In social contexts the strategy of suppression when regulating emotion is not a desired tool because a communication exchange partner is unable to understand the suppressed partner’s social cues. The suppressed partner will attempt to control or hide his or her emotions, and instead, sends mixed facial cues to their communication partner. Suppressing emotion could also cause distraction because the individual is trying to hide his or her emotions rather than focus on the conversation. Such problems will ultimately inhibit the flow of communication causing an unsuccessful transactional interaction between two individuals.

Evidence shows the use of suppression results in worse memory than those who use reappraisal. It is "hypothesized that everytime self regulation was costly it would mean that it would affect the memory. This is because suppression requires self-corrective and self-monitoring. He [the researcher] demonstrated this thought through a variety of studies but one in particular was recalling the events that were listed in a diary 1 week earlier”.[17] In the other study, they were able to also use the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) [18] to determine memory loss. The ERQ specified that an individual, who scored higher on the questionnaire had a lower score in memory recollection than an individual who had scored lower on the ERQ. The individuals with a lower score in memory recollection determined to exhibit a cognitive consequence of emotional regulation.[17]

The results previously found do not suggested that regulating emotions in the form of suppression is a negative way when used at all times.[19] One can collect the datum can be applied to situations when the emotion is in action such as surprises, secrets, or in sporting events when one is doing their best not to be overconfident. An individual will unconsciously suppress his or her emotions in order to refrain from hurting emotions of others. Although good intentions may be well-intended when utilizing the suppression of emotion, regulating one’s emotions has social consequences that does affect other individuals around the emotional inhibiting individual.

"Cardiovascular activation that accompanies negative emotions serves to prepare the body for specific action, it may be that by quelling cardiovascular activation, positive emotion helps the body efficiently trade a narrow thought action repertoire for a broader one, allowing the individual to pursue a wider array of thoughts and actions”.[20] In a social setting, there can be an emotional regulator and an emotionally challenged partner. In other words, when one regulates their emotion whether it be through, reappraisal or suppression, it is identified by the partner. The suppressed partner may experiencing an increase in physiological responses because he or she is in the presence of an emotional regulator and the suppressed partner will exhibit different emotions. An example, is when one wants to keep information to themselves and the partner feels uncertain as to whether it is okay to share information or not. This is not the case with most positive emotions. Results that are typically related to positive emotions are, a calm environment, openness between regulator and the partner but studies show that it also related to relationships, well-beings, and personality traits that can take place between a short period of time or can also be long-term because of the shaping of social interactions.

To take a closer look at how regulating one’s emotions can affect an individual’s well-being, researchers of a study demonstrated the issues of whether ethnic or gender differences influence the way individuals regulate his or her emotions. These researchers provided a brief example in terms of ethnic difference.[21] European Americans were seen as being superior in today’s society whereas minorities were seen as being at the bottom of the social status. As a result, those with a lower status felt they needed to suppress their emotions because the superiors had a much higher power over the resources that were needed. Minorities feel as though they needed to walk on eggshells to get by because superiors do not have anything to lose.

Difference in ethnicities had everything to do with the way an individual regulated their emotions around each other.[21] Using the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) the researchers asked to what level to their participants agree on statements: “I control my emotions by changing the way that I think about a situation I’m in, which was used a reappraisal example in contrast for a suppression example question they used, I control my emotions by not expressing them”.[21] Gross and John’s findings agreed with their hypothesis and showed that individuals of the minority groups used more suppression than reappraisal when regulating his or her emotions. The findings are apparent that some individuals feel as though they are different or not equal to those around them; they will typically hide their emotions rather than express them.

When thinking of long term goals, one typically thinks of different ways to achieve them. One study that is able to show long-term effects of utilizing reappraisal to achieve one’s goals and to result in the outcome one is striving for is known as Unpacking Cognitive Reappraisal.[22] The researchers are able to explain the use of the strategy in terms of goals, tactics and outcomes. “It is said that non-limited reappraisals may indicate that there may be different emotion goals that then lead to successfully regulated negative emotion. This is because the increase in positive emotion triggers an arousing state, changing arousing negative to a positive arousal. The two tactics that were able to decrease negative emotions were distancing and situational”.[23]

The study showed two goals, how to increase positive emotion and decrease negative emotions through a set of tactics. One group of participants were instructed to look at a picture in a different view than how they would naturally view it in order for them to see how they could feel better about what is taking place in the picture (the participants were told to suppress their emotions). The other group of participants were told to change the picture’s meaning. Those that only changed the pictures meaning, changed the negativity more than the others that only could tell themselves they see something different within the picture. The results able to confirm that reappraisal can function as a positive regulator, but it can do so in more than one way. One who participates in regulation are generally are seen as optimistic because they are looking at the situation in a positive way with many solutions as well as one who has a broader scope and is willing to engage in the opportunities of life.

Depressed Individuals and the Regulation of Emotion

Individuals who find themselves emotionally depressed may suffer from the inability to regulate their emotions. "Self-reported difficulties in emotion regulation are related to current symptom levels of depression as well as past depression”.[24] As previously mentioned, regulation of emotion can cause an unpleasant mood state due to the act of trying to hide one's emotions. An individual who finds him or herself already suffering from negative moods will have a more difficult time overcoming such conditions when trying to regulation his or her emotions.

There are three hypotheses concerning how depressed individuals may endure in order to regulate their emotions. The first hypothesis states, “depression vulnerability may be associated with more frequent use of emotion suppression and less frequent use of reappraisal, resulting in the maintenance of negative emotions triggered by negative life events or cognitions”.[16] As stated in the hypothesis an individual may flow between negative or positive emotion regulation. Because the individual already faces the challenges of the inability to possess long-lasting positive moods, he or she may be threatened with the thought of altering between positive and negative emotions continuously in different life circumstances.

Secondly, “depression vulnerable individuals might be expected to differ from controls in their spontaneous application of particular forms of emotion regulation when in a depressed or sad mood”.[25] Utilizing regulation of emotion in such cases would be problematic because depressed individuals could try to suppress their emotions but could only cause themselves to further decrease their negative emotions. Instead of using regulation of emotion as a tool it will harm individuals since they will be finding themselves in a further depressed state. Suppressing such negative emotions may cause people to be overcome with an even more advanced negative emotion [26]

Thirdly, “in addition to using adaptive emotion regulation strategies less frequently than healthy controls, depression-vulnerable individuals may derive less benefit from using these strategies than healthy controls even when they do use them”.[16] The depressed individual has shown earlier signs to create continual positive emotions but has done so unsuccessfully. He or she may now also be faced with rumination along with their depression. Rumination described as “repetitively focus[ing] on the potential meaning, causes, and consequences of negative mood”.[27] Rumination when suppressing one’s emotions can cause an individual to suffer from a failure to think critically, promote an overall positive thought process, as well as decrease the probability of overcoming other depression-related symptoms. Even if a depressed individual so chooses to try to regulate his or her emotions they may be faced with the problem of not reaching the desired emotion because he or she are caught to process negative thoughts continually.[24]

Individuals with sad or neutral videos and were asked about how he or she may have regulated their emotions.[26] The study found that the depressed individuals were unfortunate to suppress his or her emotions as well as increased their physiological arousal and memory deficits. The depressed participants also found himself or herself taking a longer time to spontaneously suppress his or her negative emotions to the sad films in the study. From past studies finding that it takes and individual longer to suppress rather than reappraise his or her emotions, the studied participants did exhibit a longer time to fully suppress his or her negative reactions causing an individual to be in a longer state of depression.

More recent models of emotion regulation in mood and anxiety disorders also consider deficiency in positive affect[28] and interpersonal aspects[29].

The Effects of Reappraisal or Suppression on Adulthood

Studies show that those who have anger at a young age will not be successful in regulating their emotions in the later years of their life. Adolescents who will continue to struggle with regulating their emotions may have problems with not possessing a high paying job, minimum education, as well as leading a rightful marriage. Anger can create an environment not suitable for families and relationships to flourish.[30] A study showed that anger can affect an individual's positive emotional expressions which could influence relationship, well-being, and personality trait outcomes.[31] The researchers described how individuals who possessed positivity are able to broaden their of thinking, unlike those in the study who had a narrow mindset. The study also found that one who produces positive emotions carry less lingering negative emotions. The study was designed to have participants look at a photo of a women when she was in college compared to a photo of her when she was 21, as well as a photo of the individual 30 years later towards the end of her life. Their findings indicated that positive emotional expression were closely related to the outcomes of the women 30 years later.[31]

See also

[32]

References

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  13. ^ Lopes, P.; Salovey, P.; Beers, M.; Cote, S. (2005). "Emotion Regulation Abilities and the Quality of Social Interaction". Emotion. 5 (1): 113–118. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.113.
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  17. ^ a b Gross, J. J. (2001). "Emotion regulation in adulthood: Timing is everything". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 10 (6): 214–219. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00152.
  18. ^ http://fetzer.org/sites/default/files/images/stories/pdf/selfmeasures/Self_Measures_for_Personal_Growth_and_Positive_Emotions_EMOTION_REGULATION.pdf
  19. ^ Gross, J. J. (2001). "Emotion regulation in adulthood: Timing is everything". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 10 (6): 214–219. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00152.
  20. ^ Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of general psychology, 2(3), 300.
  21. ^ a b c Gross, J. J.; John, O. P. (2003). "Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 85 (2): 348. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348.
  22. ^ McRae, K.; Ciesielski, B.; Gross, J. J. (2012). "Unpacking cognitive reappraisal: Goals, tactics,and outcomes". Emotion. 12 (2): 250. doi:10.1037/a0026351.
  23. ^ McRae, K.; Ciesielski, B.; Gross, J. J. (2012). "Unpacking cognitive reappraisal: Goals, tactics, and outcomes". Emotion. 12 (2): 250. doi:10.1037/a0026351.
  24. ^ a b Ehring, T.; et al. (2010). "Emotion regulation and vulnerability to depression: Spontaneous versus instructed use of emotion suppression and reappraisal". Emotion. 10 (4): 563–572. doi:10.1037/a0019010. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  25. ^ Gross, J. J (2002). "Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences". Psychophysiology. 39: 281–291. doi:10.1017/s0048577201393198.
  26. ^ a b Ehring, T.; et al. (2010). "Emotion regulation and vulnerability to depression: Spontaneous versus instructed use of emotion suppression and reappraisal". Emotion. 10 (4): 563–572. doi:10.1037/a0019010. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  27. ^ Rubenstein, L. M.; et al. (2015). "The cyclical nature of depressed mood and future risk: Depression, rumination, and deficits in emotional clarity in adolescent girls". Journal of Adolescence. 42: 68–76. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.03.015. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  28. ^ Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Fang, A., & Asnaani, A. (2012). Emotion dysregulation model of mood and anxiety disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 29, 409-416. doi: 10.1002/da.21888
  29. ^ Hofmann, S. G. (2014). Interpersonal emotion regulation model of mood and anxiety disorders. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38, 483-492. doi 10.1007/s10608-014-9620-1.
  30. ^ Harker, L.; Keltner, D. (2001). "Expressions of positive emotion in women's college yearbook pictures and their relationship to personality and life outcomes across adulthood". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 80 (1): 112. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.112.
  31. ^ a b Harker, L.; Keltner, D. (2001). "Expressions of positive emotion in women's college yearbook pictures and their relationship to personality and life outcomes across adulthood". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 80 (1): 112. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.112.
  32. ^ Goldin, P. R. (2007). "The neural bases of emotion regulation: Reappraisal and suppression of negative emotion". Biological Psychiatry. 63 (6): 577–586. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.031.
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