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The history of Cuba from 1902 to 1959, referred by the current Cuban regime as the Neocolonial period encompasses the period after Cuba's independence from the Spanish Empire in 1902, various changing governments and US military occupations, and ends with the success of the Cuban Revolution in 1959.(Spanish: República Neocolonial),^[1].

Nominally, the governments embodied representative democracy though at times the island was controlled by a military junta or otherwise unelected government. After becoming head of the armed forces in 1933, colonel Fulgencio Batista played a dominant role in Cuban politics over the next decades. The Cuban Revolution from 1953 to 1959 massively changed Cuban society, creating a socialist state and ending US economic dominance in Cuba, as it aligned the country with the Soviet Union.

The governments of Cuba has been regarded as a client state of the United States.^[2] From 1902 to 1932 Cuban and United States law included the Platt Amendment, which guaranteed the US right to intervene in Cuba and placed restrictions on Cuban foreign relations.^[3] In 1934, Cuba and the United States signed the Treaty of Relations in which Cuba was obligated to give preferential treatment of its economy to the United States, in exchange the United States gave Cuba a guaranteed 22 percent share of the US sugar market that later was amended to a 49 percent share in 1949.^[4]

1902-1933: Early governments

After the Spanish–American War, Spain and the United States signed the 1898 Treaty of Paris, by which Spain ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam United States for the sum of $20 million.^[5] Cuba gained formal independence from the U.S. on May 20, 1902, as the Republic of Cuba.^[6] Under Cuba's new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the Platt Amendment, the U.S. leased the Guantánamo Bay naval base from Cuba.

US occupation, 1906–1908

Following political purging and a corrupt and rigged election in 1906, the first president, Tomás Estrada Palma, faced an armed revolt by veterans of the war.^[7] As in the independence war, Afro-Cubans were overrepresented in the insurgent army of 1906. For them, the August Revolution revived hopes for a 'rightful share' in Cuba's government. On August 16, 1906, fearing the government ready to smash the plot, former Liberation Army general Pino Guerra raised the banner of revolt. Immediately Palma arrested every Liberal politician in reach; the remainder went underground. In an effort to avert intervention Roosevelt sent two emissaries to Havana to seek a compromise between government and opposition. Regarding such impartiality as a vote of censure on his government, Estrada Palma resigned and made his entire cabinet resign too, leaving the Republic without a government and forcing the United States to take control of the island. Roosevelt immediately proclaimed that the USA had been compelled to intervene in Cuba and that their only purpose was to create the necessary conditions for a peaceful election.^[8]

1908–1924

In 1908, self-government was restored when José Miguel Gómez was elected president, but the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In 1912, the Partido Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province,^[9] but was suppressed by General Monteagudo with considerable bloodshed.

Sugar production played an important role in Cuban politics and economics. In the 1910s, during and after World War I, a shortage in the world sugar supply fueled an economic boom in Cuba, marked by prosperity and the conversion of more and more farmland to sugar cultivation. Prices peaked and then crashed in 1920, ruining the country financially and allowing foreign investors to gain more power than they already had. This economic turbulence was called "the Dance of the Millions".^[10]^[11]

Machado era

In 1924, Gerardo Machado was elected president. During his administration, tourism increased markedly, and American-owned hotels and restaurants were built to accommodate the influx of tourists. The tourist boom led to increases in gambling and prostitution in Cuba.^[12] Machado initially enjoyed support from much of the public and from all the country's major political parties. However, his popularity declined steadily. In 1928 he held an election which was to give him another term, this one of six years, despite his promise to serve only for one term.

1933-1958: Unrest and new governments

Revolution of 1933

The Wall Street Crash of 1929 led to precipitous drops in the price of sugar, political unrest, and repression.^[13] Protesting students, known as the Generation of 1930, and a clandestine terrorist organization known as the ABC, turned to violence in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Machado.^[13]

US ambassador Sumner Welles arrived in May 1933 and began a diplomatic campaign which involved "mediation" with opposition groups in including the ABC. This campaign significantly weakened Machado's government and, backed with the threat of military intervention, set the stage for a regime change.^[14]

A general strike (in which the Communist Party sided with Machado),^[15] uprisings among sugar workers, and an army revolt forced Machado into exile in August 1933. He was replaced by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, son of Cuban patriot Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and former ambassador to the US.^[13]

In September 1933, the Sergeants' Revolt, led by Sergeant Fulgencio Batista, overthrew Céspedes.^[16] General Alberto Herrera served briefly as president (August 12–13) followed by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada from August 13 until September 5, 1933. A five-member executive committee (the Pentarchy of 1933) was chosen to head a provisional government.^[17] They were ousted by a student-led organization, the Student Directory, which appointed Ramon Grau San Martin as provisional president and passed various reforms during the ensuing One Hundred Days Government.^[17] Grau resigned in 1934, after which Batista dominated Cuban politics for the next 25 years, at first through a series of puppet-presidents.^[16] The period from 1933 to 1937 was a time of "virtually unremitting social and political warfare".^[18]

Constitution of 1940

A new constitution was adopted in 1940, which engineered radical progressive ideas, including the right to labor and health care.^[19] Batista was elected president in the same year, holding the post until 1944.^[20] He is so far the only non-white Cuban to win the nation's highest political office.^[21]^[22]^[23] His government carried out major social reforms. Several members of the Communist Party held office under his administration.^[24] Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War II, although president Batista suggested a joint U.S.-Latin American assault on Francoist Spain in order to overthrow its authoritarian regime.^[25]

Batista adhered to the 1940 constitution's strictures preventing his re-election.^[26] Ramon Grau San Martin was the winner of the next election, in 1944.^[20] Grau further corroded the base of the already teetering legitimacy of the Cuban political system, in particular by undermining the deeply flawed, though not entirely ineffectual, Congress and Supreme Court.^[27] Carlos Prío Socarrás, a protégé of Grau, became president in 1948.^[20] The two terms of the Auténtico Party saw an influx of investment which fueled a boom and raised living standards for all segments of society and created a prosperous middle class in most urban areas.^{[citation needed]}

Batista dictatorship

Slum (*bohio*) dwellings in Havana, Cuba in 1954, just outside Havana baseball stadium. In the background is advertising for a nearby casino.

After running unsuccessfully for the presidency in 1952, Batista staged a coup.^[28] He outlawed the Cuban Communist Party in 1952.^[29] Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios, though about one third of the population was considered poor and enjoyed relatively little of this consumption.^[30]

In 1958, Cuba was a relatively well-advanced country by Latin American standards, and in some cases by world standards.^[31] On the other hand, Cuba was affected by perhaps the largest labor union privileges in Latin America, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities.^[32] Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems.^[21]^[33] Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.^[21] The middle class, which was comparable to that of the United States, became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions supported Batista until the very end.^[21]^[22] Batista stayed in power until he was forced into exile in December 1958.^[28]

Tourism

Between 1915 and 1930, Havana hosted more tourists than any other location in the Caribbean.^[34] The influx was due in large part to Cuba's proximity to the United States, where restrictive prohibition on alcohol and other pastimes stood in stark contrast to the island's traditionally relaxed attitude to leisure pursuits. Such tourism became Cuba's third largest source of foreign currency, behind the two dominant industries of sugar and tobacco. Cuban drinks such as the daiquiri and mojito became common in the United States during this time, after Prohibition was repealed.

A combination of the Great Depression of the 1930s, the end of prohibition, and World War II severely dampened Cuba's tourist industry, and it wasn't until the 1950s that numbers began to return to the island in any significant force. During this period, American organized crime came to dominate the leisure and tourist industries, a modus operandi outlined at the infamous Havana Conference of 1946. By the mid-1950s Havana became one of the main markets and the favourite route for the narcotics trade to the United States. Despite this, tourist numbers grew steadily at a rate of 8% a year and Havana became known as "the Latin Las Vegas".^[34]^[35]

References

^ "Sitio del Gobierno de la República de Cuba/Período Neocolonial". Archived from the original on 2018-03-09. Retrieved 2018-11-22.
^ Pérez, Louis A. (1991). Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902–1934. Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press. p. xvi.
^ Pérez, Louis A. (1991). Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902–1934. Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press. p. 54.
^ Miller, John; Kenedi, Aaron (2003). Inside Cuba: The History, Culture, and Politics of an Outlaw Nation. New York: Marlowe & Company. pp. 35–36.
^ "Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain". The Avalon Project. Yale Law School. December 10, 1898.
^ Louis A. Pérez (1998). Cuba Between Empires: 1878–1902. University of Pittsburgh Pre. p. xv. ISBN 978-0-8229-7197-9. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
^ Diaz-Briquets, Sergio; Pérez-López, Jorge F. (2006). Corruption in Cuba: Castro and Beyond. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-292-71321-5. Retrieved September 6, 2009.
^ https://libraries.ucsd.edu/research-and-collections/collections/notable-collections/latin-american-elections-statistics/Cuba/elections-and-events-19021911.html
^ Beede, Benjamin, ed. (1994). The War of 1898, and U.S. interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia. New York: Garland. p. 134. ISBN 0-8240-5624-8. Retrieved September 6, 2009.
^ Kevin Grogan, Cuba's Dance of the Millions: Examining the Causes and Consequences of Violent Price Fluctuations in the Sugar Market Between 1919 and 1920; Masters' Thesis accepted at University of Florida, August 2004.
^ Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., "Dance of the Millions"; Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture (2008).
^ Terry K Sanderlin, Ed D (April 24, 2012). The Last American Rebel in Cuba. AuthorHouse. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4685-9430-0. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c Wilber Albert Chaffee; Gary Prevost (1992). Cuba: A Different America. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8476-7694-1. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
^ Philip Dur & Christopher Gilcrease, "U.S. Diplomacy and the Downfall of a Cuban Dictator: Machado in 1933"; Journal of Latin American Studies Vol. 34, No. 2, May 2002; DOI: 10.01/S0022216X02006417; JSTOR.
^ Argote-Freyre, Frank (2006). Fulgencio Batista. Vol. 1. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-8135-3701-0.
^ ^a ^b Jones, Melanie (2001). Jacqueline West (ed.). South America, Central America and the Caribbean 2002. Routledge. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-85743-121-6. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
^ ^a ^b Jaime Suchlicki (2002). Cuba: From Columbus to Castro and Beyond. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-57488-436-4. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
^ Domínguez, Jorge I. Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 76.
^ Domínguez, Jorge I. Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. ?.
^ ^a ^b ^c Frank R. Villafana (December 31, 2011). Expansionism: Its Effects on Cuba's Independence. Transaction Publishers. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-4128-4656-1. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Horowitz, Irving Louis, ed. (1998) [1988]. Cuban Communism (6 ed.). Transition Books. p. 662.
^ ^a ^b Bethell, Leslie (1993). Cuba. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43682-3.
^ Sweig, Julia E. (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 4.
^ Sweig, Julia E. (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. ?.
^ "Batista's Boot". Time. January 18, 1943. Retrieved April 20, 2013.
^ Domínguez, Jorge I. Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 101.
^ Domínguez, Jorge I. Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 110–11.
^ ^a ^b Maureen Ihrie; Salvador Oropesa (October 31, 2011). World Literature in Spanish: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-313-08083-8. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
^ Sweig, Julia E. (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 6.
^ Paul H. Lewis (2006). Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 186. ISBN 0-7425-3739-0. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
^ Smith & Llorens 1998.
^ Baklanoff 1998.
^ Thomas, Hugh (1998). Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom. p. 1173. ISBN 978-0-306-80827-2.
^ ^a ^b "International Tourism and the Formation of Productive Clusters in the Cuban Economy Miguel Alejandro Figueras" (PDF). world-tourism.org.^{[permanent dead link]}
^ History of Cuba written and compiled by J.A. Sierra

External links

Media related to History of Cuba (1902–1959) at Wikimedia Commons

[1] "Sitio del Gobierno de la República de Cuba/Período Neocolonial". Archived from the original on 2018-03-09. Retrieved 2018-11-22.

[2] Pérez, Louis A. (1991). Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902–1934. Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press. p. xvi.

[3] Pérez, Louis A. (1991). Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902–1934. Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press. p. 54.

[4] Miller, John; Kenedi, Aaron (2003). Inside Cuba: The History, Culture, and Politics of an Outlaw Nation. New York: Marlowe & Company. pp. 35–36.

[5] "Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain". The Avalon Project. Yale Law School. December 10, 1898.

[Pérez1998-6] Louis A. Pérez (1998). Cuba Between Empires: 1878–1902. University of Pittsburgh Pre. p. xv. ISBN 978-0-8229-7197-9. Retrieved July 19, 2013.

[7] Diaz-Briquets, Sergio; Pérez-López, Jorge F. (2006). Corruption in Cuba: Castro and Beyond. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-292-71321-5. Retrieved September 6, 2009.

[8] ttps://libraries.ucsd.edu/research-and-collections/collections/notable-collections/latin-american-elections-statistics/Cuba/elections-and-events-19021911.html

[9] Beede, Benjamin, ed. (1994). The War of 1898, and U.S. interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia. New York: Garland. p. 134. ISBN 0-8240-5624-8. Retrieved September 6, 2009.

[10] Kevin Grogan, Cuba's Dance of the Millions: Examining the Causes and Consequences of Violent Price Fluctuations in the Sugar Market Between 1919 and 1920; Masters' Thesis accepted at University of Florida, August 2004.

[11] Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., "Dance of the Millions"; Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture (2008).

[D2012-12] Terry K Sanderlin, Ed D (April 24, 2012). The Last American Rebel in Cuba. AuthorHouse. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4685-9430-0. Retrieved July 19, 2013.

[ChaffeePrevost1992-13] Wilber Albert Chaffee; Gary Prevost (1992). Cuba: A Different America. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8476-7694-1. Retrieved July 19, 2013.

[14] Philip Dur & Christopher Gilcrease, "U.S. Diplomacy and the Downfall of a Cuban Dictator: Machado in 1933"; Journal of Latin American Studies Vol. 34, No. 2, May 2002; DOI: 10.01/S0022216X02006417; JSTOR.

[15] Argote-Freyre, Frank (2006). Fulgencio Batista. Vol. 1. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-8135-3701-0.

[MJ303-16] Jones, Melanie (2001). Jacqueline West (ed.). South America, Central America and the Caribbean 2002. Routledge. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-85743-121-6. Retrieved July 19, 2013.

[Suchlicki2002-17] Jaime Suchlicki (2002). Cuba: From Columbus to Castro and Beyond. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-57488-436-4. Retrieved July 19, 2013.

[18] Domínguez, Jorge I. Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 76.

[19] Domínguez, Jorge I. Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. ?.

[Villafana2011-20] Frank R. Villafana (December 31, 2011). Expansionism: Its Effects on Cuba's Independence. Transaction Publishers. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-4128-4656-1. Retrieved July 19, 2013.

[horowitz662-21] Horowitz, Irving Louis, ed. (1998) [1988]. Cuban Communism (6 ed.). Transition Books. p. 662.

[bethell-22] Bethell, Leslie (1993). Cuba. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43682-3.

[23] Sweig, Julia E. (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 4.

[24] Sweig, Julia E. (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. ?.

[25] "Batista's Boot". Time. January 18, 1943. Retrieved April 20, 2013.

[26] Domínguez, Jorge I. Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 101.

[27] Domínguez, Jorge I. Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 110–11.

[IhrieOropesa2011-28] Maureen Ihrie; Salvador Oropesa (October 31, 2011). World Literature in Spanish: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-313-08083-8. Retrieved July 19, 2013.

[29] Sweig, Julia E. (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 6.

[lewis-30] Paul H. Lewis (2006). Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 186. ISBN 0-7425-3739-0. Retrieved September 14, 2009.

[asce-31] Smith & Llorens 1998.

[32] Baklanoff 1998.

[33] Thomas, Hugh (1998). Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom. p. 1173. ISBN 978-0-306-80827-2.

[Miguel-34] "International Tourism and the Formation of Productive Clusters in the Cuban Economy Miguel Alejandro Figueras" (PDF). world-tourism.org.^{[permanent dead link]}

[35] History of Cuba written and compiled by J.A. Sierra

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{short description|Historical period in Cuba from 1902 to 1959}}
-#REDIRECT [[Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)]]
+{{History of Cuba}}
+The '''history of Cuba from 1902 to 1959''', referred by the [[Politics of Cuba|current Cuban regime]] as the '''Neocolonial period''' encompasses the period after Cuba's independence from the Spanish Empire in 1902, various changing governments and US military occupations, and ends with the success of the [[Cuban Revolution]] in 1959.({{lang-es|República Neocolonial}}),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cubagob.cu/otras_info/historia/neocolonia.htm|title=Sitio del Gobierno de la República de Cuba/Período Neocolonial|access-date=2018-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309035640/http://www.cubagob.cu/otras_info/historia/neocolonia.htm|archive-date=2018-03-09|url-status=dead}}</ref>.
+Nominally, the governments embodied [[representative democracy]] though at times the island was controlled by a [[military junta]] or otherwise unelected government. After becoming head of the armed forces in 1933, colonel [[Fulgencio Batista]] played a dominant role in Cuban politics over the next decades. The [[Cuban Revolution]] from 1953 to 1959 massively changed Cuban society, creating a [[socialist state]] and ending US economic dominance in Cuba, as it aligned the country with the Soviet Union.
-{{Redirect category shell|
-{{Redirect from modification|{{No redirect|History of Cuba (1902–1959)}}}}
+The governments of Cuba has been regarded as a [[client state]] of the United States.<ref>{{cite book|first=Louis A. |last=Pérez |title=Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902–1934 |location=Pittsburgh, PA | publisher= Pittsburgh University Press |year= 1991 |page= xvi}}</ref> From 1902 to 1932 Cuban and United States law included the [[Platt Amendment]], which guaranteed the US right to intervene in Cuba and placed restrictions on Cuban foreign relations.<ref>{{cite book|first=Louis A. |last=Pérez |title=Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902–1934 |location=Pittsburgh, PA | publisher= Pittsburgh University Press |year= 1991 |pages= 54}}</ref>   In 1934, Cuba and the United States signed the [[Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1934)|Treaty of Relations]] in which Cuba was obligated to give preferential treatment of its economy to the United States, in exchange the United States gave Cuba a guaranteed 22 percent share of the US sugar market that later was amended to a 49 percent share in 1949.<ref>{{cite book|first1=John |last1=Miller |first2= Aaron |last2=Kenedi | title= Inside Cuba: The History, Culture, and Politics of an Outlaw Nation |location=New York |publisher= Marlowe & Company |year= 2003 | pages= 35–36}}</ref>
-}}
+==1902-1933: Early governments==
+{{See also|1902 Constitution of Cuba|Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1903)}}
+[[File: Raising the Cuban flag on the Governor General's Palace at noon on May 20, 1902.gif|thumb|left|Raising the Cuban flag on the Governor General's Palace at noon on May 20, 1902.]]
+After the [[Spanish–American War]], Spain and the United States signed the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|1898 Treaty of Paris]], by which Spain ceded [[Puerto Rico]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Guam]] United States for the sum of {{Nowrap|$20 million}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp|title=Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain|date=December 10, 1898|work=The Avalon Project|publisher=Yale Law School}}</ref> Cuba gained formal independence from the U.S. on May 20, 1902, as the Republic of Cuba.<ref name="Pérez1998">{{cite book|author=Louis A. Pérez|title=Cuba Between Empires: 1878–1902 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhK4vMXe1QC&pg=PR15|accessdate=July 19, 2013|year=1998|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Pre|isbn=978-0-8229-7197-9|page=xv}}</ref> Under Cuba's new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the [[Platt Amendment]], the U.S. leased the [[Guantánamo Bay]] naval base from Cuba.
+=== US occupation, 1906–1908 ===
+{{Main|Second Occupation of Cuba}}
+Following political purging and a corrupt and rigged election in 1906, the first president, [[Tomás Estrada Palma]], faced an armed revolt by veterans of the war.<ref>{{cite book|title=Corruption in Cuba: Castro and Beyond |page=63 |first1=Sergio|last1=Diaz-Briquets|first2=Jorge F. |last2= Pérez-López| publisher=University of Texas Press| location=Austin |year=2006|isbn=0-292-71321-5| url=https://books.google.com/?id=Fiquofr8LSoC&pg=PA63|accessdate=September 6, 2009}}</ref> As in the independence war, Afro-Cubans were overrepresented in the insurgent army of 1906. For them, the August Revolution revived hopes for a 'rightful share' in Cuba's government. On August 16, 1906, fearing the government ready to smash the plot, former Liberation Army general Pino Guerra raised the banner of revolt. Immediately Palma arrested every Liberal politician in reach; the remainder went underground. In an effort to avert intervention Roosevelt sent two emissaries to Havana to seek a compromise between government and opposition. Regarding such impartiality as a vote of censure on his government, Estrada Palma resigned and made his entire cabinet resign too, leaving the Republic without a government and forcing the United States to take control of the island. Roosevelt immediately proclaimed that the USA had been compelled to intervene in Cuba and that their only purpose was to create the necessary conditions for a peaceful election.<ref>https://libraries.ucsd.edu/research-and-collections/collections/notable-collections/latin-american-elections-statistics/Cuba/elections-and-events-19021911.html</ref>
+=== 1908–1924 ===
+In 1908, self-government was restored when [[José Miguel Gómez]] was elected president, but the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In 1912, the [[Partido Independiente de Color]] attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province,<ref>{{cite book|title=The War of 1898, and U.S. interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia|editor-first=Benjamin|editor-last= Beede|page=134|year=1994|publisher=Garland|location=New York|isbn=0-8240-5624-8 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=48g116X9IIwC&pg=PA134|accessdate=September 6, 2009}}</ref> but was suppressed by General Monteagudo with considerable bloodshed.
+[[Cuban sugar economy|Sugar production]] played an important role in Cuban politics and economics. In the 1910s, during and after [[World War I]], a shortage in the world [[sugar industry|sugar supply]] fueled an economic boom in Cuba, marked by prosperity and the conversion of more and more farmland to sugar cultivation. Prices peaked and then crashed in 1920, ruining the country financially and allowing foreign investors to gain more power than they already had. This economic turbulence was called "the Dance of the Millions".<ref>Kevin Grogan, ''[http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0006301/grogan_k.pdf Cuba's Dance of the Millions: Examining the Causes and Consequences of Violent Price Fluctuations in the Sugar Market Between 1919 and 1920]''; Masters' Thesis accepted at University of Florida, August 2004.</ref><ref>Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., "[http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/dance-millions Dance of the Millions]"; ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture '' (2008).</ref>
+=== Machado era ===
+In 1924, [[Gerardo Machado]] was [[Cuban general election, 1924|elected]] president. During his administration, tourism increased markedly, and American-owned hotels and restaurants were built to accommodate the influx of tourists. The tourist boom led to increases in gambling and [[prostitution in Cuba]].<ref name="D2012">{{cite book|author=Terry K Sanderlin, Ed D|title=The Last American Rebel in Cuba|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFT8Mp8VuNkC&pg=PA7|accessdate=July 19, 2013|date=April 24, 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4685-9430-0|page=7}}</ref> Machado initially enjoyed support from much of the public and from all the country's major political parties. However, his popularity declined steadily. In 1928 he held [[Cuban presidential election, 1928|an election]] which was to give him another term, this one of six years, despite his promise to serve only for one term.
+==1933-1958: Unrest and new governments==
+===Revolution of 1933===
+{{See also|Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1934)}}
+The [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]] led to precipitous drops in the price of sugar, political unrest, and repression.<ref name="ChaffeePrevost1992" /> Protesting students, known as the [[Directorio Estudiantil Universitario|Generation of 1930]], and a clandestine terrorist organization known as the [[ABC (Cuba)|ABC]], turned to violence in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Machado.<ref name="ChaffeePrevost1992" />
+US ambassador [[Sumner Welles]] arrived in May 1933 and began a diplomatic campaign which involved "mediation" with opposition groups in including the ABC. This campaign significantly weakened Machado's government and, backed with the threat of military intervention, set the stage for a regime change.<ref>Philip Dur & Christopher Gilcrease, "U.S. Diplomacy and the Downfall of a Cuban Dictator: Machado in 1933"; ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' Vol. 34, No. 2, May 2002; [[DOI: 10.01/S0022216X02006417]]; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3875789 JSTOR].</ref>
+A general strike (in which the [[Popular Socialist Party (Cuba)|Communist Party]] sided with Machado),<ref>{{cite book|title=Fulgencio Batista|volume=1|page=[https://archive.org/details/fulgenciobatista00argo/page/n75 50]|last=Argote-Freyre|first=Frank|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick, NJ|year=2006|isbn=0-8135-3701-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/fulgenciobatista00argo}}</ref> uprisings among sugar workers, and an army revolt forced Machado into exile in August 1933. He was replaced by [[Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada]], son of Cuban patriot [[Carlos Manuel de Céspedes]] and former [[Embassy of Cuba in Washington, D.C.|ambassador to the US]].<ref name="ChaffeePrevost1992">{{cite book|author1=Wilber Albert Chaffee|author2=Gary Prevost|title=Cuba: A Different America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9CJec-NWjS0C&pg=PA4|accessdate=July 19, 2013|year=1992|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8476-7694-1|page=4}}</ref>
+[[File:1933-Pentarchy w Batista.jpg|thumb|The [[Pentarchy of 1933]]. [[Fulgencio Batista]], who controlled the armed forces, appears at far right.]]
+In September 1933, the [[Sergeants' Revolt]], led by Sergeant [[Fulgencio Batista]], overthrew Céspedes.<ref name="MJ303">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Melanie|editor=Jacqueline West|title=South America, Central America and the Caribbean 2002| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9ODxqsr-dIC&pg=PA303|accessdate=July 19, 2013|year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-85743-121-6|page=303}}</ref> General [[Alberto Herrera y Franchi|Alberto Herrera]] served briefly as president (August 12–13) followed by [[Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada]] from August 13 until September 5, 1933. A five-member executive committee (the [[Pentarchy of 1933]]) was chosen to head a provisional government.<ref name="Suchlicki2002">{{cite book|author=Jaime Suchlicki|title=Cuba: From Columbus to Castro and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHhUknsCtfIC&pg=PA95|accessdate=July 19, 2013|year=2002|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.|isbn=978-1-57488-436-4|page=95}}</ref> They were ousted by a student-led organization, the [[Student Directory]], which appointed [[Ramon Grau San Martin]] as provisional president and passed various reforms during the ensuing [[One Hundred Days Government]].<ref name="Suchlicki2002" /> Grau resigned in 1934, after which Batista dominated Cuban politics for the next 25 years, at first through a series of puppet-presidents.<ref name="MJ303" /> The period from 1933 to 1937 was a time of "virtually unremitting social and political warfare".<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y1oF-WQmOPgC&pg=PA76 |last=Domínguez| first=Jorge I.| title=Cuba: Order and Revolution|page=76|publisher=Harvard University Press| location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>
+===Constitution of 1940===
+{{Main|1940 Constitution of Cuba}}
+A [[1940 Constitution of Cuba|new constitution]] was adopted in 1940, which engineered radical progressive ideas, including the right to labor and health care.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y1oF-WQmOPgC&pg=PA76 |last=Domínguez| first=Jorge I.| title=Cuba: Order and Revolution|page=?|publisher=Harvard University Press| location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref> Batista was elected president in the same year, holding the post until 1944.<ref name="Villafana2011">{{cite book|author=Frank R. Villafana|title=Expansionism: Its Effects on Cuba's Independence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jj2mIS40lAMC&pg=PA201|accessdate=July 19, 2013|date=December 31, 2011|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-4656-1|page=201}}</ref> He is so far the only non-white Cuban to win the nation's highest political office.<ref name=horowitz662>{{cite book| editor-first=Irving Louis | editor-last=Horowitz| edition=6| title=Cuban Communism|year=1998 |page=662 | url= https://books.google.com/?id=hx2_y7Vu-PUC&pg=PA662 | publisher=Transition Books| orig-year= 1988}}</ref><ref name=bethell>{{cite book|title=Cuba|first=Leslie|last=Bethell|isbn=978-0-521-43682-3|year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Sweig|first=Julia E.|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ob-I8MyTqx8C&pg=PA4 |page=4|title=Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> His government carried out major social reforms. Several members of the Communist Party held office under his administration.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sweig|first=Julia E.|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ob-I8MyTqx8C& |page=?|title=Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War&nbsp;II, although president Batista suggested a joint U.S.-Latin American assault on [[Spanish State|Francoist Spain]] in order to overthrow its [[authoritarian]] regime.<ref>{{cite news |title=Batista's Boot |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,802544,00.html |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=January 18, 1943 |accessdate=April 20, 2013 }}</ref>
+Batista adhered to the 1940 constitution's strictures preventing his re-election.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y1oF-WQmOPgC&pg=PA101 |last=Domínguez| first=Jorge I.| title=Cuba: Order and Revolution|page=101|publisher=Harvard University Press| location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref> Ramon Grau San Martin was the winner of the next election, in 1944.<ref name="Villafana2011" /> Grau further corroded the base of the already teetering legitimacy of the Cuban political system, in particular by undermining the deeply flawed, though not entirely ineffectual, Congress and Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y1oF-WQmOPgC&pg=PA110 |last=Domínguez| first=Jorge I.| title=Cuba: Order and Revolution|pages=110–11|publisher=Harvard University Press| location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref> [[Carlos Prío Socarrás]], a protégé of Grau, became president in 1948.<ref name="Villafana2011" /> The two terms of the Auténtico Party saw an influx of investment which fueled a boom and raised living standards for all segments of society and created a prosperous middle class in most urban areas.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}
+===Batista dictatorship===
+[[File:HavanaSlums1954.jpg|thumb|right|210px|[[Slum]] (''bohio'') dwellings in Havana, Cuba in 1954, just outside [[Estadio Latinoamericano|Havana baseball stadium]]. In the background is advertising for a nearby [[casino]].]]
+After running unsuccessfully for the presidency in 1952, [[Fulgencio Batista|Batista]] staged a [[1952 Cuban coup d'état|coup]].<ref name="IhrieOropesa2011" /> He outlawed the Cuban Communist Party in 1952.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sweig|first=Julia E.|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ob-I8MyTqx8C&pg=PA6 |page=6|title=Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios, though about one third of the population was considered poor and enjoyed relatively little of this consumption.<ref name=lewis>{{cite book|title=Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America|url=https://books.google.com/?id=LAvw-YXm4TsC&pg=PA186|author=Paul H. Lewis|page=186|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=0-7425-3739-0|accessdate=September 14, 2009|year=2006}}</ref>
+In 1958, Cuba was a relatively well-advanced country by Latin American standards, and in some cases by world standards.<ref name=asce>{{Harvnb|Smith|Llorens|1998}}.</ref> On the other hand, Cuba was affected by perhaps the largest labor union privileges in Latin America, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baklanoff|1998}}.</ref> Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems.<ref name=horowitz662 /><ref>{{cite book| last=Thomas |first= Hugh|year= 1998 |title=Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom |isbn=978-0-306-80827-2| page= 1173}}</ref> Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.<ref name=horowitz662 /> The middle class, which was comparable to that of the United States, became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions supported Batista until the very end.<ref name=horowitz662 /><ref name=bethell /> Batista stayed in power until he was forced into exile in December 1958.<ref name="IhrieOropesa2011">{{cite book|author1= Maureen Ihrie | author2=Salvador Oropesa|title=World Literature in Spanish: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPDFHE_5besC&pg=PA262|accessdate=July 19, 2013|date=October 31, 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO| isbn=978-0-313-08083-8|page=262}}</ref>
+==Tourism==
+Between 1915 and 1930, Havana hosted more tourists than any other location in the Caribbean.<ref name="Miguel">{{cite web|url=http://world-tourism.org/quality_/E/docs/trade/cubacontrib.pdf|title=International Tourism and the Formation of Productive Clusters in the Cuban Economy Miguel Alejandro Figueras|author=|date=|website=world-tourism.org}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref>  The influx was due in large part to [[Cuba-United States relations|Cuba's proximity to the United States]], where restrictive [[Prohibition in the United States|prohibition]] on [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] and other pastimes stood in stark contrast to the island's traditionally relaxed attitude to leisure pursuits. Such tourism became Cuba's third largest source of foreign currency, behind the two dominant industries of [[sugar]] and [[tobacco]]. Cuban drinks such as the [[daiquiri]] and [[mojito]] became common in the United States during this time, after Prohibition was repealed.
+A combination of the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, the end of prohibition, and World War II severely dampened Cuba's tourist industry, and it wasn't until the 1950s that numbers began to return to the island in any significant force. During this period, American [[organized crime]] came to dominate the leisure and tourist industries, a modus operandi outlined at the infamous [[Havana Conference]] of 1946. By the mid-1950s [[Havana]] became one of the main markets and the favourite route for the [[narcotics]] trade to the United States. Despite this, tourist numbers grew steadily at a rate of 8% a year and Havana became known as "the Latin [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]".<ref name="Miguel"/><ref>[http://www.historyofcuba.com/history/funfacts/batist.htm History of Cuba] written and compiled by J.A. Sierra</ref>
+==References==
+{{Reflist}}
+==External links==
+* {{Commons category-inline}}
+{{Cuba topics}}
+{{DEFAULTSORT:Republic of Cuba (1902-59)}}
+[[Category:Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)| ]]
+[[Category:History of Cuba by period|Republic 1902]]
+[[Category:Former countries in the Caribbean|Cuba 1902]]
+[[Category:Former polities of the Cold War]]
+[[Category:Former republics|Cuba 1902]]
+[[Category:Cuban nationalism|Republic 1902]]
+[[Category:1900s in Cuba|.]]
+[[Category:1910s in Cuba|.]]
+[[Category:1920s in Cuba|.]]
+[[Category:1930s in Cuba|.]]
+[[Category:1940s in Cuba|.]]
+[[Category:1950s in Cuba|.]]
+[[Category:States and territories established in 1902]]
+[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1959]]
+[[Category:1902 establishments in Cuba]]
+[[Category:1959 disestablishments in Cuba]]
+[[Category:Former member states of the United Nations]]
+[[Category:20th century in Cuba|Republic 1902]]