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==== Learned optimism ====
==== Learned optimism ====
<!-- see Talk page -->


== Subjective Well-being ==
'''Subjective well-being''' (see also [[subjective life satisfaction]]) is an analogous term for emotional well-being or [[happiness]] elaborated by the positive psychologist [[Ed Diener]] et al. The article by Diener and colleagues "The Psychology of Subjective Well-being" (2004) seeks to further legitimize the study of happiness or well-being as within the reaches of science where previously it had been viewed by many as rather a subject confined to philosophy or religion because these subjects are considered somewhat abstract. Additionally, Snyder & Lopez define subjective well-being in their text ''Positive Psychology'' (2007) a tenet of theories of happiness in which "individual's appraisals of their own lives capture the essence of well-being." According to Snyder and Lopez consideration of different types of well-being (subjective, objective, psychological, social, etc.) provides a more comprehensive understanding of [[mental health]].
== Benefits in Education == <!-- I don't object to the addition of this study, but it is not appropriately concise, and should accordingly be drastically cut down. -->
== Benefits in Education == <!-- I don't object to the addition of this study, but it is not appropriately concise, and should accordingly be drastically cut down. -->
Positive psychology is beneficial to schools and students as it encourages individuals to strive to do the best they can whereas scolding has the opposite effect. Clifton and Rath <ref>Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51</ref> discuss the research conducted by Dr. Elizabeth Hurlock in 1925. She designed a study around fourth to sixth grade students to see the effect praise, criticism and ignorance of the students work could have on them. The outcome was determined by how many maths problems the children solved after 2, 3, 4, and 5 days later. Children who scored a high mark in a maths test were named and praised in front of the class. Those who did poorly were openly scolded in front of the class and those who did very poorly were completely ignored after watching the other students being scolded and praised. A control group was taken to a different room and sat the same test but were given no feedback on their work. Students who were praised or criticised had a higher score on the second day. On the third and fourth day, the students who were criticised were equal with the students who were ignored. The students who were praised continued to excel in their work to the end of the study. The overall improvement was that the praised students improved by 71%, the students who were criticised increased their performance by 19% and those who were ignored increased by 5%. This study shows the importance of embracing positive psychology in schools. Ignoring or criticising students can hinder their education.
Positive psychology is beneficial to schools and students as it encourages individuals to strive to do the best they can whereas scolding has the opposite effect. Clifton and Rath <ref>Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51</ref> discuss the research conducted by Dr. Elizabeth Hurlock in 1925. She designed a study around fourth to sixth grade students to see the effect praise, criticism and ignorance of the students work could have on them. The outcome was determined by how many maths problems the children solved after 2, 3, 4, and 5 days later. Children who scored a high mark in a maths test were named and praised in front of the class. Those who did poorly were openly scolded in front of the class and those who did very poorly were completely ignored after watching the other students being scolded and praised. A control group was taken to a different room and sat the same test but were given no feedback on their work. Students who were praised or criticised had a higher score on the second day. On the third and fourth day, the students who were criticised were equal with the students who were ignored. The students who were praised continued to excel in their work to the end of the study. The overall improvement was that the praised students improved by 71%, the students who were criticised increased their performance by 19% and those who were ignored increased by 5%. This study shows the importance of embracing positive psychology in schools. Ignoring or criticising students can hinder their education.
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According to Clifton and Rath <ref>Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51</ref> ninety nine out of one hundred people would prefer to be around positive people. The individuals believe that they work more productively when they are around positive people. Positive emotions are contagious so having a teacher or student who is positive can help the other students to be positive and work to the best of their abilities. If there is one negative person, it can ruin the entire positive vibe in an environment. Clifton and Rath <ref>Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51</ref> believe that ‘positive emotions are an essential daily requirement for survival’.
According to Clifton and Rath <ref>Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51</ref> ninety nine out of one hundred people would prefer to be around positive people. The individuals believe that they work more productively when they are around positive people. Positive emotions are contagious so having a teacher or student who is positive can help the other students to be positive and work to the best of their abilities. If there is one negative person, it can ruin the entire positive vibe in an environment. Clifton and Rath <ref>Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51</ref> believe that ‘positive emotions are an essential daily requirement for survival’.

== What is Learned Optimism? ==

The idea of learned optimism was developed by Martin Seligman and published in his 1990 book, Learned Optimism.<ref>Unless otherwise cited, all conceptual information and processes comes comes from Seligman's book</ref> The benefits of an optimistic outlook on are many—optimists are higher achievers and have better overall health. Pessimism, on the other hand, is much more common. Pessimists view bad events as permanent and they believe that adversity they face is their own fault. Pessimists are more likely to give up in the face of adversity or to be depressed. In Learned Optimism, Seligman invites pessimists to learn to be optimists through learning to think about reaction to adversity in a new way. The resulting optimism—that that grows from pessimism—is called learned optimism.
Seligman came to the concept of learned optimism through scientifically studying learned helplessness, which is the idea that no matter what people do, certain often negative events are still going to befall them. People who experience that phenomenon continually learn to be helpless. As he was performing tests to study helplessness further, he began to wonder why some people who were conditioned to be helpless in his lab never actually became helpless. Some subjects blamed themselves for their helplessness during the experiments, whereas others blamed the experiment for setting them up to fail. Seligman shifted his focus to attempting to discover what it is that keeps some people from ever becoming helpless. The answer was optimism. Using his knowledge about conditioning people to be helpless in the lab, he shifted his focus to conditioning people to be optimists. The result of these experiments led to defining the process of learned optimism.

Other differences exist between pessimists and optimists in the areas of permanence, pervasiveness, hope, and personalization.

•Permanence: Optimistic people believe bad events to be more temporary than permanent and bounce back quickly from failure, whereas others may take longer periods to recover or may never recover. They also believe good things happen for reasons that are permanent, rather than seeing the transient nature of positive events.

•Pervasiveness: Optimistic people compartmentalize helplessness, whereas pessimistic people assume that failure in one area of life means failure in life as a whole. Optimistic people also allow good events to brighten every area of their lives rather than just the particular area in which the event occurred.

•Hope: Optimists point to specific temporary causes for negative events; pessimists point to permanent causes

•Personalization: Optimists blame bad events on causes outside of themselves, whereas pessimists blame themselves for events that occur. Optimists are therefore generally more confident. Optimists also quickly internalize positive events while pessimists externalize them.

== Seligman’s Method of Learning Optimism ==

Anyone can learn optimism. Whether currently an optimist or a pessimist, benefits can be gained from exposure to the process of learned optimism to improve response to both big and small adversities. A test, developed by Seligman, is used to determine an individual’s base level of optimism. This test can be accessed at [http://www.stanford.edu/class/msande271/onlinetools/LearnedOpt.html], and will assess how you will more likely respond in given situations. The results of the test classify individuals as very optimistic, moderately optimistic, average, moderately pessimistic, or very pessimistic. Being in any of the bottom three categories means that learning optimism can prevent depression, help people achieve more, and raise overall physical health.

Seligman’s process of learning optimism is simple, and allows for a different way of responding to adversity that leads to talking oneself through personal defeat. It begins with the Ellis ABC model of adversity, belief, and consequence.<ref>Seligman worked with Dr. Steven Hollon, a psychologist at Vanderbilt University, and Dr. Arthur Freeman, a psychiatrist at University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, on this program using the ABC model developed by psychologist Albert Ellis.</ref> Adversity is the event that happens, belief is how that adversity is interpreted, and consequences are the feelings and actions that result from the beliefs. This is demonstrated in the example below:

• Adversity: Someone cuts you off in traffic.
• Belief: You think, “I can’t believe that idiot was so rude and selfish!”
• Consequence: You are overcome with anger, yelling profanity at the other driver.

This is a somewhat graphic example, but should present a good idea of what each component of ABC looks like. In the journey to learning optimism, one must first understand his/ her natural reaction to and interpretation of adversity. In order to do so, keep a journal for 1–2 days of small adversity events, and the beliefs and consequences that follow. Look for the pessimistic interpretations in the personal journal. That is what learning optimism will change.

Seligman adds to the ABC model, so his model is ABCDE. D stands for disputation, which centers around providing evidence against a belief, alternative reasons for the adversity’s occurrence, implications of the adversity, and the usefulness of moving on from the adversity. Disputation for the above traffic example might sound like this: “I am overreacting. I don’t know what situation he is in. Maybe he is on his way to his daughter’s piano recital and is running late. I’m sure I have cut people off before without meaning to, so I should really cut him a break. I am not in a hurry anyway.” A response like this can change feelings to be more hopeful and positive. Successful disputation is therefore the key to learned optimism. Successful disputation leads to energization, the E in the ABCDE model. One is energized by the positive feelings and sense of accomplishment that come from successful disputation of negative beliefs.

== Empirical Findings on Learned Optimism ==

In a study completed by Martin Seligman, Ph.D. and Gregory Buchanan, Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania and published by the American Psychological Association, learned optimism techniques were found to significantly reduce depression in a class of college freshmen. As incoming students to the university, a survey determined the most pessimistic students and they were invited to participate in the study. They were randomly assigned, half to attend a 16-hour workshop on the techniques of learning optimism, and half were the control group. In an 18 month follow up, 32% of the control group suffered moderate to severe depression and 15% suffered moderate to severe anxiety disorder, whereas only 22% of the workshop participants were depressed and 7% had anxiety issues. Those who participated in the learned optimism workshop also reported fewer health problems over the 18 month period of the study than those students in the control group.<ref>Discovery Health 1997</ref>

A study done by Peter Schulman at the Wharton School, published in the Journal of Selling and Sales Management, looked to determine the affects of applying learned optimism in business. After measuring the optimism levels of an insurance sales force, it was determined that the optimistic sales people sold 35 percent more, and identified pessimists were two times more likely to quit in the first year than optimists. As a result of his studies, he recommends testing sales job candidates for optimism levels to fit them to appropriate positions, training employees in learned optimism techniques, and designing an organization overall to have attainable goals set and good support from management.<ref name="Schulman 1999">Schulman 1999</ref>

Finally, a study conducted by Mark Ylvisaker of the College of Saint Rose and Timothy Feeney of the Wildwood Institute looked at children with executive function impairment, meaning they have a brain functioning impairment perhaps affecting motor skills, memory, or focus ability, and relating techniques of learned optimism not to the children themselves, but to their caretakers, who oftentimes are more likely to feel helpless than optimistic in regards to caring for the child. It was found that learned optimism in caretakers of children with brain damage actually led the children to develop more functioning than children without optimistic caretakers. Optimistic rehabilitation professionals can help to augment these results.<ref>Ylivisaker and Feeney 2002</ref>

== Learned Optimism in Practice ==

Learned optimism techniques can be very practical to apply to anyone’s life, and are used frequently today in the areas of parenting, business, and psychology.
Teaching children learned optimism by guiding them through the ABCDE techniques can help children to better deal with adversity they encounter in their lives. In addition to the same value adults can get from learning optimism, if children are taught early then the thought process of disputation becomes ingrained in them. They do not have to focus on being optimistic, but rather optimism becomes automatic and leads to a more positive life for the child.

Learned optimism is prevalent in business because more optimistic workers are more successful workers. Seligman’s focus in business is on “the personal wall” that is each individual workers constant point of discouragement. This could be preparing reports or making cold calls to potential clients. Putting the ABCDE model into practice allows workers to respond to this “wall” with a readiness to conquer rather than to feel dejected. Additionally, the ASQ—Attributional Style Questionnaire—is often used to measure optimism of job candidates during the interview process by asking the participant to write down causes for situational failures. Participants then rank the causes based on given criteria, and this helps businesses to know from the beginning whether the job candidate will be a high or low performer in his/her projected role based on his level of optimism.<ref name="Schulman 1999"/>

Learned optimism is also a big tool used to combat depression during cognitive behavioral therapy. Many people are depressed simply because they have a pessimistic outlook, and using the ABCDE to change one’s beliefs about adversity. Rather than perceiving adversity as a constant thing that cannot be overcome, and taking personal blame for that adversity, patients come out of cognitive behavioral therapy with the belief that they can control how they respond to adversity. A shift toward optimism is a shift away from depression, and that is what makes Seligman’s techniques so useful in cognitive behavioral therapy.

(1)Discovery Health. Learned Optimism Yields Health Benefits. American Psychological Association, 1997. [http://health.discovery.com/centers/mental/articles/optimism/optimism.html]
(2)Seligman, Martin. Learned Optimism. New York, NY: Pocket Books. 1998.
(3)Schulman, Peter. Applying Learned Optimism to Increase Sales Productivity. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management. Volume XIX, Number 1, Winter 1999. Pages 31–37. [http://www.integratei.com/admin/updpdfs/Applying%20learned%20optimism%20to%20increase%20sales%20productivity.pdf]
(4)Ylvisaker, Mark and Timothy Feeney. Executive functions, self-regulation, and learned optimism in paediatric rehabilitation: a review and implications for intervention. Developmental Neurorehabilitation. Volume 5, Issue 2, April 2002, pages 51–70. [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a713835990&db=all]


==== Hope ====
==== Hope ====
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=== Other findings ===
=== Other findings ===

* "A systematic study of 22 people who won major lotteries found that they reverted to their baseline level of happiness over time, winding up no happier than 22 matched controls" (p.&nbsp;48<ref name="Seligman2002"/>)
* "A systematic study of 22 people who won major lotteries found that they reverted to their baseline level of happiness over time, winding up no happier than 22 matched controls" (p.&nbsp;48<ref name="Seligman2002"/>)
* "Within a few years, [[Paraplegia|paraplegics]] wind up only slightly less happy on average than individuals who are not paralyzed" (p.&nbsp;48<ref name="Seligman2002"/>)
* "Within a few years, [[Paraplegia|paraplegics]] wind up only slightly less happy on average than individuals who are not paralyzed" (p.&nbsp;48<ref name="Seligman2002"/>)

Revision as of 00:00, 15 June 2010

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Positive psychology is a recent branch of psychology whose purpose was summed up in 2000 by Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: "We believe that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise that achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to build thriving in individuals, families, and communities."[1] Positive psychologists seek "to find and nurture genius and talent", and "to make normal life more fulfilling",[2] not simply to treat mental illness.[2][3][4] This approach has created a lot of interest around the subject, and in 2006 a course at Harvard University entitled "Positive Psychology" became the most popular course that semester.[5]

Several humanistic psychologists—such as Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Erich Fromm—developed theories and practices that involved human happiness. Recently the theories of human flourishing developed by these humanistic psychologists have found empirical support from studies by positive psychologists. Positive psychology has also moved ahead in a number of new directions.

Current researchers in positive psychology include Martin Seligman,[2] Ed Diener,[2] Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi,[2] Christopher Peterson,[2] Carol Dweck, Barbara Fredrickson,[2] Sonja Lyubomirsky,[6][7] Kennon Sheldon,[8] Jonathan Haidt,[9] Shelley Taylor, C. R. Snyder,[2] Robert Biswas-Diener,[10] Donald Clifton, Albert Bandura, Charles S. Carver, Michael F. Scheier, and Ilona Boniwell[11].

Background

Positive psychology began as a new area of psychology in 1998 when Martin Seligman, considered the father of the modern positive psychology movement,[12] chose it as the theme for his term as president of the American Psychological Association,[13] though the term originates with Maslow, in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality,[14] and there have been indications that psychologists since the 1950s have been increasingly focused on promoting mental health rather than merely treating illness.[3][15] Seligman pointed out that for the half century clinical psychology "has been consumed by a single topic only - mental illness",[16] echoing Maslow’s comments.[17] He urged psychologists to continue the earlier missions of psychology of nurturing talent and improving normal life.[2]

The first positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.[2] In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place.[18]

Historical roots

Positive psychology finds its roots in the humanistic psychology of the 20th century, which focused heavily on happiness and fulfillment. Earlier influences on positive psychology came primarily from philosophical and religious sources, as scientific psychology did not take its modern form until the late 19th century. (See History of psychology)

Judaism promotes a Divine command theory of happiness: happiness and rewards follow from following the commands of the divine.[2]

The ancient Greeks had many schools of thought. Socrates advocated self-knowledge as the path to happiness. Plato's allegory of the cave influenced western thinkers who believe that happiness is found by finding deeper meaning. Aristotle believed that happiness, or eudaimonia is constituted by rational activity in accordance with virtue over a complete life. The Epicureans believed in reaching happiness through the enjoyment of simple pleasures. The Stoics believed they could remain happy by being objective and reasonable.[2]

Christianity continued to follow the Divine command theory of happiness. In the Middle Ages, Christianity taught that true happiness would not be found until the afterlife. The seven deadly sins are about earthly self-indulgence and narcissism. On the other hand, the Four Cardinal Virtues and Three Theological Virtues were supposed to keep one from sin.[2]

During the Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment, individualism came to be valued. Simultaneously, creative individuals gained prestige, as they were now considered to be artists, not just craftsmen. Utilitarian philosophers such as John Stuart Mill believed that moral actions are those actions that maximize happiness for the most number of people. Thus, an empirical science of happiness should be used to determine which actions are moral. Thomas Jefferson and other proponents of democracy believed that "Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness" are inalienable rights, and that it justifies the overthrow of the government.[2]

The Romantics valued individual emotional expression and sought their emotional "true selves," which were unhindered by social norms. At the same time, love and intimacy became the main motivations for people to get married.[2]

Research

General overview

Some researchers[19] in this field posit that positive psychology can be delineated into three overlapping areas of research:

  1. Research into the Pleasant Life, or the "life of enjoyment", examines how people optimally experience, forecast, and savor the positive feelings and emotions that are part of normal and healthy living (e.g. relationships, hobbies, interests, entertainment, etc.).
  2. The study of the Good Life, or the "life of engagement", investigates the beneficial affects of immersion, absorption, and flow that individuals feel when optimally engaged with their primary activities. These states are experienced when there is a positive match between a person's strength and the task they are doing, i.e. when they feel confident that they can accomplish the tasks they face. (See related concept, Self-efficacy)
  3. Inquiry into the Meaningful Life, or "life of affiliation", questions how individuals derive a positive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and purpose from being part of and contributing back to something larger and more permanent than themselves (e.g. nature, social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems).

These categories appear to be neither widely disputed nor adopted by researchers across the 12 years that this academic area has been in existence.

The undoing effect

In an article titled "The undoing effect of positive emotions", Barbara Fredrickson et al. hypothesize that positive emotions undo the cardiovascular effects of negative emotions. When people experience stress, they show increased heart rate, higher blood sugar, immune suppression, and other adaptations optimized for immediate action. If individuals do not regulate these changes once the stress is past, they can lead to illness, coronary heart disease, and heightened mortality. Both lab research and survey research indicate that positive emotions help people who were previously under stress relax back to their physiological baseline.[20]

Elevation

After several years of researching disgust, University of Virginia professor Jonathan Haidt and others studied its opposite, and the term "elevation" was coined. Elevation is a moral emotion and is pleasant. It involves a desire to act morally and do "good"; as an emotion it has a basis in biology, and can sometimes be characterized by a feeling of expansion in the chest or a tingling feeling on the skin.

Broaden-and-build

The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions suggests that positive emotions (e.g. happiness, interest, anticipation)[21] broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened behavioral repertoire builds skills and resources. For example, curiosity about a landscape becomes valuable navigational knowledge; pleasant interactions with a stranger become a supportive friendship; aimless physical play becomes exercise and physical excellence.

This is in contrast to negative emotions, which prompt narrow survival-oriented behaviors. For example, the negative emotion of anxiety leads to the specific fight-or-flight response for immediate survival.[21]

Strengths and virtues

The development of the Character Strengths and Virtues (CSV) handbook represents the first attempt on the part of the research community to identify and classify the positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provides a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and virtues and for developing practical applications for positive psychology. This manual identifies six classes of virtue (i.e., "core virtues"), made up of twenty-four measurable character strengths.[22]

The introduction of CSV suggests that these six virtues are considered good by the vast majority of cultures and throughout history and that these traits lead to increased happiness when practiced. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, this suggestion of universality hints that in addition to trying to broaden the scope of psychological research to include mental wellness, the leaders of the positive psychology movement are challenging moral relativism and suggesting that we are "evolutionarily predisposed" toward certain virtues, that virtue has a biological basis.[23]

The organization of these virtues and strengths is as follows:

  1. Wisdom and Knowledge: creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective, innovation
  2. Courage: bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality
  3. Humanity: love, kindness, social intelligence
  4. Justice: citizenship, fairness, leadership
  5. Temperance: forgiveness and mercy, humility, prudence, self control
  6. Transcendence: appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality

Positive experiences

Mindfulness

Mindfulness, defined as actively searching for novelty, is also characterized as non-judging, non-striving, accepting, patient, trusting, open, letting go, gentle, generous, empathetic, grateful, and kind. Its benefits include reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain.[24]

Flow

Flow, or a state of absorption in one's work, is characterized by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of control, and a sense that "time is flying." Flow is an intrinsically rewarding experience, and it can also help one achieve a goal (e.g. winning a game) or improve skills (e.g. becoming a better chess player).[24]

Spirituality

Spirituality is associated with mental health, managing substance abuse, marital functioning, parenting, and coping. It has been suggested that spirituality also leads to finding purpose and meaning in life.[24]

Positive futures

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is one's belief in one's ability to accomplish a task by one's own efforts. Low self-efficacy is associated with depression; high self-efficacy can help one overcome abuse, overcome eating disorders, and maintain a healthy lifestyle. High self-efficacy also improves the immune system, aids in stress management, and decreases pain.[25] A related but somewhat differing concept is Personal effectiveness which is primarily concerned with the methodologies of planning and implementation of accomplishment.

Learned optimism

Benefits in Education

Positive psychology is beneficial to schools and students as it encourages individuals to strive to do the best they can whereas scolding has the opposite effect. Clifton and Rath [26] discuss the research conducted by Dr. Elizabeth Hurlock in 1925. She designed a study around fourth to sixth grade students to see the effect praise, criticism and ignorance of the students work could have on them. The outcome was determined by how many maths problems the children solved after 2, 3, 4, and 5 days later. Children who scored a high mark in a maths test were named and praised in front of the class. Those who did poorly were openly scolded in front of the class and those who did very poorly were completely ignored after watching the other students being scolded and praised. A control group was taken to a different room and sat the same test but were given no feedback on their work. Students who were praised or criticised had a higher score on the second day. On the third and fourth day, the students who were criticised were equal with the students who were ignored. The students who were praised continued to excel in their work to the end of the study. The overall improvement was that the praised students improved by 71%, the students who were criticised increased their performance by 19% and those who were ignored increased by 5%. This study shows the importance of embracing positive psychology in schools. Ignoring or criticising students can hinder their education. Positive emotions enable individuals to learn and work to the best of their ability.

According to Clifton and Rath [27] ninety nine out of one hundred people would prefer to be around positive people. The individuals believe that they work more productively when they are around positive people. Positive emotions are contagious so having a teacher or student who is positive can help the other students to be positive and work to the best of their abilities. If there is one negative person, it can ruin the entire positive vibe in an environment. Clifton and Rath [28] believe that ‘positive emotions are an essential daily requirement for survival’.

Hope

Hope is a learned style of goal-directed thinking in which the person utilizes both pathways thinking (the perceived capacity to find routes to desired goals) and agency thinking (the requisite motivations to use those routes)[25]

Other findings

  • "A systematic study of 22 people who won major lotteries found that they reverted to their baseline level of happiness over time, winding up no happier than 22 matched controls" (p. 48[19])
  • "Within a few years, paraplegics wind up only slightly less happy on average than individuals who are not paralyzed" (p. 48[19])
  • "[83 percent] of Americans report positive life satisfaction" (p. 50[19])
  • "In wealthier nations ... increases in wealth have negligible effects on personal happiness" (p. 54[19])
  • "Unlike money, which has at most a small effect, marriage is robustly related to happiness.... In my opinion, the jury is still out on what causes the proven fact that married people are happier than unmarried people." (pp. 55–56[19]) On the other hand, at least one large study in Germany found no difference in happiness between married and unmarried people.[29]

Application

Practical applications of positive psychology include helping individuals and organizations identify their strengths and use them to increase and sustain their respective levels of well-being. Therapists, counselors, coaches, and various psychological professionals, as well as HR departments, business strategists, and others are using these new methods and techniques to broaden and build upon the strengths of individuals who are not necessarily suffering from mental illness or disorder.

A summary of the application of positive psychology to executive coaching was presented by Dr. Anne Lueneburger, Managing Partner of North Of Neutral, in CHOICE Magazine .

How the positive psychology virtues and strengths are portrayed in movies, and how individuals can use movie viewings for self-improvement or to help others, are illustrated in a more recent book by Ryan Niemiec from the VIA Institute on Character [30] and Danny Wedding from the Missouri Institute of Mental Health [31] entitled Positive Psychology at the Movies: Using Films to Build Virtues and Character Strengths.[32]

Positive psychology research and practice is also currently being conducted and developed in various countries throughout the world. In Canada, for example, Charles Hackney of Briercrest College applies positive psychology to the topic of person growth through martial arts training, and Paul Wong, president of the International Network on Personal Meaning [33], is developing an existential approach to positive psychology.

In 2008 a whole-of-school implementation of Positive Psychology was undertaken by Geelong Grammar School (Victoria, Australia) in conjunction with the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Penslyvania. This involved initial training of teaching staff in the principles and skills of positive psychology. Ongoing support was provided by The Positive Psychology Center staff remaining in-residence for the entire year (Seligman et. al 2008).[34]

Staats, Hupp and Hagley (2008) have used positive psychology to explore academic honesty, by identifying positive traits that were displayed by heroes and then determining if the presence of these traits in students could be used to predict their future intent to cheat. Their research has resulted in ‘an effective working model of heroism in the context of the academic environment’ (Staats, Hupp & Hagley, 2008).[35]

Positive psychology has also been implemented in business management practice, but Wong & Davey (2007) [36] acknowledges that although managers can introduce this concept to a workplace, they don't always have the ability to apply it to employees in a positive way. Furthermore, if positive psychology must be applied to an organisation with transparency if it is to be welcomed and committed to by employees. [37] Managers must also understand that the sheer implementation of positive psychology will not combat any commitment challenges they may face. However, it may help employees to be more optimistic to new concepts or management practices.

Positive psychology, when applied correctly can provide employees with a greater opportunity to use skills and vary work duties. However, It is important to remember that changing work conditions and roles can lead to stress amongst employees if they are not properly supported by management in their venture. This particularlly holds true for employees who must meet the expectations of organisations with unrealistic goals and targets.[38]

An ‘intense affect’ can certainly be considered with cognitive and behavioural change, which is more slight and complex and is becoming a legitimate area of study, specifically with the links in cognition and motivational responses. For researchers to make further progress there is a need for past theories and methods to be overcome and to encourage the more contemporary research believes Isen (2009).[39]

Chang (2008) believes emotional intelligence is not definitive to positive affect and researchers have a number of paths that allow the enhancement of emotional intelligence; however more study is required to track the gradient of positive affect in psychology.[40]

So how does an organization implement change? Lewis et al (2007) have development Appreciative inquiry (AI) which is an integrated, organizational-level methodology for approaching organizational change, based on an understanding of how organizational resourcefulness is generated through accessing many human psychological processes, such as positive emotional states, imagination, social cohesion and the social construction of reality.[41]

Researcher Dianne Hales described a person as emotionally healthy as someone who exhibited flexibility and adaptability to different circumstances, had a sense of meaning and affirmation in life as well as an "understanding that the self is not the center of the universe", had compassion and the ability to be unselfish, along with increased depth and satisfaction in intimate relationships, and who had a sense of control over the mind and body.[42]

Criticism

Positive psychology has been criticized by journalist Barbara Ehrenreich for its allegedly non-scientific approach. Ehrenreich asserts that "Evidence is thin. Statistical significance levels are narrow. What few robust findings there are often prove to be either nonreplicable or contradicted by later research. And correlations (between, say, happiness and health) are not causations."[citation needed]

Sample (2003) notes that it is argued by Steven Wolin, a clinical psychiatrist at George Washington University in Washington DC, that the study of positive psychology is simply a reiteration of older ways of thinking in positive psychology.

The uptake of positive psychology by the popular press, primarily promoting among other claims the ‘health benefits’ of positive psychology. Snyder and Lopez (cited in Held 2004, p. 17) warn of possible damage to the field of positive psychology through the scientific community becoming caught up in the media’s ‘beat up’ claims of positive psychology. Warning researchers of the field, Snyder and Lopez suggest that they remain within the parameters of scientific professionalism and utilise any research or studies appropriately.[43]

Some negative attributes of positive psychology as described by Held (2004) include the movement’s lack of consistency towards the aspect of negativity. She raised issues with the simplistic approach taken by some psychologists in the application of positive psychology. A ‘one size fits all’ approach is not seen by Held to be beneficial to the advancement of the field of positive psychology, and she suggested a need for individual differences to be incorporated into its application.[44]

Held (2004) argued that while positive psychology makes contributions to the field of psychology, that it is not without its faults. Her 2004 article in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology, vol.44, no.1. offered insight into topics including the negative side effects of positive psychology, the negativity that can be found within the positive psychology movement and the current division inside the field of psychology caused by the differing opinions held by psychologists on positive psychology.[45]

See also

Wikiversity has learning resources about Positive psychology


Precursors to Positive Psychology:

Notes

  1. ^ Seligman, Martin E.P. (2000). "Positive Psychology: An Introduction". American Psychologist. 55 (1): 5–14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Compton, William C, (2005). "1". An Introduction to Positive Psychology. Wadsworth Publishing. pp. 1–22. ISBN 0-534-64453-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b J. Secker (1998). "Current conceptualizations of mental health and mental health promotion" (PDF). No. vol. 13 no. 1. Health Education Research. Retrieved 2010-05-18. ... Amongst psychologists ... the importance of promoting health rather than simply preventing ill-health date back to the 1950s (Jahoda, 1958). ... see page 58 {{cite news}}: |issue= has extra text (help)
  4. ^ Amy Tardio (July 15, 2009). "Is the World Ready for a Positive Psychology?". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2010-05-18. Historically, psychology in the United States since WWI has been illness based. ... The emerging field of Positive Psychology is intended to compliment, not to replace traditional psychology. By scientifically studying what has gone right, rather than wrong in both individuals and societies, Positive Psychology hopes to achieve a renaissance of sorts. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  5. ^ Ben-Shahar, Ben (2007) "Happier - Learn the Secrets to Daily Joy and Lasting Fulfillment", First Edition, McGraw-Hill Co.
  6. ^ http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~sonja/ppl.html
  7. ^ http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/newsletter.aspx?id=70
  8. ^ Kennon M. Sheldon Curriculum Vita
  9. ^ Ong, Anthony D. and Van Dulmen, Manfred H.M. (2006). Oxford Handbook of Methods in Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press U.S.
  10. ^ http://www.cappeu.com/robert-biswas-diener.htm
  11. ^ "Ilona Boniwell Research Profile".
  12. ^ Goldberg, Carey. "Harvard's crowded course to happiness." The Boston Globe. March 10, 2006.
  13. ^ Time Magazine's cover story in the special issue on "The Science of Happiness", 2005
  14. ^ Note: the last chapter is entitled "Toward a Positive Psychology".
  15. ^ Dianne Hales (2010). "An Invitation to Health, Brief: Psychological Well-Being 2010-2011 Edition". Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Retrieved 2010-05-18. see page 26 for discussion on Positive Psychology regarding Martin Seligman's conception
  16. ^ Seligman, Martin E.P. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. xi. ISBN 0-7432-2297-0.
  17. ^ "The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, than the darker, meaner half." (Maslow, Motivation and Psychology, p. 354).
  18. ^ Reuters, Jun 18, 2009: First World Congress on Positive Psychology Kicks Off Today With Talks by Two of the World's Most Renowned Psychologists
  19. ^ a b c d e f Seligman, Martin E.P. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 275. ISBN 0-7432-2297-0.
  20. ^ Fredrickson, B. L., Mancuso, R. A., Branigan, C., & Tugade, M. M. (2000). "The undoing effect of positive emotions", Motivation and Emotion. 24, 237-258.
  21. ^ a b Compton, William C, (2005). "2". An Introduction to Positive Psychology. Wadsworth Publishing. pp. 23–40. ISBN 0-534-64453-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Peterson, Christopher (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516701-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Peterson, Christopher & Seligman, Martin E.P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 51. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.
  24. ^ a b c Snyder, C.R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2007), "11", Positive Psychology, Sage Publications, Inc., ISBN 076192633X
  25. ^ a b Snyder, C.R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2007), "9", Positive Psychology, Sage Publications, Inc., ISBN 076192633X
  26. ^ Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51
  27. ^ Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51
  28. ^ Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51
  29. ^ Marriage Is Not the Key to Happiness, by Anne Becker, Psychology Today, March 18, 2003.
  30. ^ www.viacharacter.org
  31. ^ www.mimh.edu
  32. ^ Niemiec, Ryan & Wedding, Danny (2008). Positive Psychology at the Movies: Using Films to Build Virtues and Character Strengths. Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe. ISBN 978-0-88937-352-5.
  33. ^ http://meaning.ca/
  34. ^ Seligman, M, Ernst, R, Gillham J, Reivich, K & Links M 2009, ‘Positive education: positive psychology and classroom interventions’, Oxford Review of Education, vol. 35, no. 3, pp 293-311, retrieved 28 April 2010, Academic Search Complete database.
  35. ^ Staats, S, Hupp J, Hagley M 2008, ‘Honesty and heroes: a positive psychology view of heroism and academic honesty’, Journal of Psychology, vol. 142, no. 4, pp 357-72, retrieved 28 April 2010, Expanded Academic ASAP database
  36. ^ Wong & Davey (2007)[[1]]
  37. ^ Harrington S, Linley A & Page N. 2010[2]
  38. ^ Snyder, C & Lopez, J. 2002, Handbook of Positive Psychology, Oxford University Press [3]
  39. ^ Isen, A.M, 2009, “Positive Affect as a Source of Human Strength”, In C. R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (eds.), Handbook of positive psychology, pp 179-195, New York: Oxford University Press, retrieved from http://www.ebscohost.com/, April, 2010.
  40. ^ Chang, Kelly B. T, 2008, ‘Can We Improve Emotional Intelligence’, Emotional Intelligence; Perspectives on Educational and Positive Psychology, Peter Lang Publishing Inc., New York, pg 25-45
  41. ^ Lewis, S, Passmore, J & Cantore, S 2008, ‘Positive psychology and managing change’, Psychologist, vol. 21, no. 11, pp. 934, retrieved 28 April 2010, Academic Search Complete
  42. ^ Dianne Hales (2010). "An Invitation to Health, Brief: Psychological Well-Being 2010-2011 Edition". Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Retrieved 2010-05-18. see page 26
  43. ^ Held, BS 2004, ‘The Negative Side of Positive Psychology’, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 44 No. 1, pp. 9-41, retrieved 27 April 2010, PsycINFO database.
  44. ^ Held, BS 2004, ‘The Negative Side of Positive Psychology’, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 44 No. 1, pp. 9-41, retrieved 27 April 2010, PsycINFO database.
  45. ^ Held, BS 2004, ‘The Negative Side of Positive Psychology’, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 44 No. 1, pp. 9-41, retrieved 27 April 2010, PsycINFO database.

References

Further reading

External links

Outline of psychology

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